
Class 
Book 






Copyright N^. 



COPmiGHT DEPOSIT. 



I 



fntpfB irliDnl I3istnn|. 



NARRATIVE 



GENERAL COURSE OF HISTORY 



THE EARLIEST PERIODS TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE 
AMERICAN CONSTITUTION. 



PEEPARED W^T^ QUESTIONS FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS, AND ILLUSTRATED WITH 
150 MAPS AND ENGRAVINGS. 




N E W ,, Y R K : 
PUBLISHED BY HARPER & BROTHERS, 

PEARL STREET, FRANKLIN SQUARE, 

1856. 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one tliousand eiglit hundred 
and fifty-six, by 

HARPER & BROTHERS, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District of New York. 



TO THE TEACHER. 

This work is intended as a complete text-book of general liis- 
tory for the use of schools. It does not consist, as is often the 
case with books of this class, of a condensed summary of names, 
dates, and detached chronological events, but presents, in a sim- 
ple and connected narrative, a general view of the great leading- 
events that have occurred in the history of the world, beginning 
at the earliest periods, and coming down through the Assyrian, 
Persian, Grecian, Roman, and British empires, to the organization 
of the American Republic, and the establishment of the American 
Constitution. It is intended for Americans, and the narrative con- 
sequently follows the line which leads to, and is most directly con- 
nected with, the events of our own history. The work is fully il- 
lustrated with maps and engravings, and is prepared with questions 
on a new and very convenient plan for the use of teachers. 

In using the work, the teacher is requested to call the special 
attention of the class to the following directions in respect to the 
mode of studying the book before they commence it. 

Directions to the Pupil in studying the Booh 

1. The pupil must observe that, though there is a question at the 
head of each paragraph, still the paragraph is not itself a mere an- 
swer to the question. It is a general statement which contains 
the answer. In other words, the book is not a catechism of his- 
tory, but a connected narrative, written without regard to the ques- 
tions. These, having been afterward introduced, are placed at the 
heads of the paragraphs instead of at the foot of the page, solely 
for the convenience of the teacher. In studying the lessons, there- 
fore, you must not be satisfied with merely searching in each par- 
agraph for a few words or phrases which will serve as an answer 
to the question placed at the head of it, but you must study at- 
tentively the statements made in its paragraph in connection with 
what precedes it, so as to peruse the whole as part of a connected 



iv INTRODUCTION. 

Story, and make yourself fully acquainted with all that it contains. 
To this end, read the paragraph twice in a very careful manner, 
thinking while you read, not of the question, but of the facts which 
the paragraph states, and of their connection with the main thread 
of the story. In other words, while you are reading the paragraph, 
dismiss the questions entirely from your mind, and think only of 
the general course of the narrative. After you have thus become 
completely master of the sense of the paragraph, then read the 
questions, and from your own knowledge of the subject, as obtain- 
ed from the perusal of the paragraph, frame an answer to them 
yourself in your own language. 

By this means you will receive into your mind, and fix there, 
a, clear idea of the course of events described in the narrative. You 
will make the knowledge imparted by the book your own, and you 
will have it at command in the form in which you will require it 
for the purposes of reading and conversation in future life ; where- 
as, if, as is very often practiced, you only look over the paragraph 
for the purpose of marking with a pencil certain w^ords or phrases 
to be repeated by rote at the recitation as an answer to the ques- 
tion, you do not study history at all ; you merely learn to repeat 
mechanically a set form of words. 

2. At the recitation, give your answers to the questions asked 
you fluently, in a narrative form, and in your own language. Such 
a work as this, studied and recited in the proper way, will be of 
great service to you in increasing your command of language, and 
thus improving your power of expressing yourself in conversation. 
This, indeed, is one of the great advantages of such a study. 

3. Find every place mentioned in the work upon the map, and 
keep the relative situations of these places in mind as you go on 
with the narrative. This will greatly assist you in understanding 
the story, and in giving to the transactions described, in your con- 
ceptions of them, the effect of reality. 

Jacob Abbott. 



CONTENTS. 



PARTI. 

ANCIENT HISTORY. „.^^ 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. DISTEIETTTION OF THE HUMAN RACE , 13 

II. NINEVEH AND THE ASSYRIANS 23 

ill. BABYLON 36 

IV. KUINS OP NINEVEH AND BABYLON 48 

V. FOUNDATION OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE 59 

VI. THE STATES OF GREECE 67 

VII. DARIUS AND THE FIRST INVASION OF GREECE 72 

VIII. XERXES AND THE SECOND IN^TASION OF GREECE 78 

IX. ALEXANDER THE GREAT 87 

X. THE FOUNDATION OP ROME 95 

XI. ROME UNDER THE CONSULS 104: 

XII. PYRRHUS, KING OF EPIRUS 109 

XIII. THE CARTHAGINIANS AND HANNIBAL 119 

XIV. POMPEY AND CiESAR 128 

XV. EGYPT 139 

XVI. FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE 151 

XVII. ANCIENT CHRONOLOGY 155 



PART II. 

ENGLISH HISTORY. 

I. THE ANCIENT BRITONS 168 

II. THE ROMAN INVASION 172 

III. THE ANGLO-SAXONS 179 

rV'. THE DANES • 1^0 

V. KING ALFRED THE GREAT 19^ 

VI. THE NORMAN CONQUEST 210 

VII. RICHARD THE CRUSADER • 220 

VIII. KING JOHN 230 

IX. KING RICHARD THE THIRD 240 

X. HENRY THE EIGHTH .i^lD THE EErOR:M ATION 



25<^ 



vi CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER ''•^*^' 



.^.. ^ ., JILIZABETH 2G 1 

XII. OVERTHROW OF THE MONARCHY 270 

XIII. THE RE STORATION 279 

XIV. THE REVOLUTION 289 

XV. THE ENGLISH ARISTOCRACY 299 



PART III. 

AMERICAN HISTORY. 

I. THE ABORIGINES 309 

IL COLUMBUS 318 

III. SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA 331 

IV. SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK 340 

V. SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND 347 

VI. THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT 358 

VII. THE AMERICAN CONGRESS 371 

VIII. COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAR 375 

IX. THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 385 

X. PROGRESS OF THE AVAR 393 

XI. EXPEDITION OF BURGOYNE , , ; 405 

XII. THE FRENCH ALLIANCE 414 

XIII. THE TREASON OF BENEDICT ARNOLD 419 

XIV. THE SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS 432 

XV. THE ORGANIZATION OF THE FEDERAL UNION , 442 



ENGRAVINGS. 



PAGE 

If, 

LIFE IN THE ARCTIC REGIONS 

10 

GREENLANDER AND SEAL 

1/ 

ESQUIMAUX 

TROPICAL SAVAGES ^" 

INDUSTRIAL ARTS " 

SITUATION OF NINEVEH " 

SEMIRAMIS IN THE WOOD ^ 

SEMIRAIVIIS ON THE WALL ' 

THE BRIBE ' ^ 

KING HEZEKIAH SHOWING HIS TREASURES 

4o 

THE HANGING GARDENS ^ _ 

47 

CYRUS ENTERING BABYLON 

MOUNDS ^^ 

ARCHER — SPEARMAN — SLINGER '^ 

WRITING DOWN THE NIBIBER OP THE SLAIN " 

5o 

ADVANCING TO THE ATTACK 

54 

THE COMPOUND HORSEMAN 

bo 

CROSSING A RIVER 

5b 

WAR CHARIOT 

HEAD-DRESS OP A HORSE ^ 

DISCOVERIES g-^ 

THE herdsman's INFANT 

CmUS'S HUNTING g^ 

EXPEDITIONS OP CYRUS ^g 

STATE S OF GREEC E _ 

VIEW OF ATHENS ^. 

<4 

PH^DYMA AND S3IERDIS 

CROSSING THE HELLESPONT 

MARCH OF XERXES 

THE PERSIAN EMBASSADORS AT SPARTA 

MARCH OF ALEXANDER „. 

MARCH THROUGH THE PASS OF SUSA 

MAP OF LATIUM 



82 
84 



Vlll ENGRAVINGS. 

PAGE 

THE TWINS 98 

THE BRACELETS 102 

ROMAN MILITARY ROAD 105 

PLEBEIANS 106 

EMPIRE OP PTRRHUS HQ 

PTRRHUS VIEWING THE ROMAN ENCAJJIPMENT 115 

DISPLAY OF THE ARMOR 11(J 

DEATH OF PYRRHUS Ug 

situation of carthage , 221 

crossing the alps 226 

scipio burning the carthaginian fleet 128 

Cesar's invasion of Britain 230 



132 
13(5 
138 



EXCITEMENT IN ROME 

ASSASSINATION OF POMPEY 

THE TRIUMPHAL PROCESSION ; 

THE PYRAMIDS OF EGYPT ji^ 

THE SPHINX ,., 

141 

THE STATUES OF MEMNON ...^ 

CLEOPATRA'S STRATAGEM ,,^ 

, 14b 

CLEOPATRA S ENTERTAINIVIENT j.p 

ROOM IN CLEOPATRA'S PALACE , „' 

BURNING OF ROME ,'^., 

lo'o 

RIOTS IN ROME 

RUINS OF ROME ^ 

256 

FORMS OF THE WAR CHARIOT AND THE ARMOR OF THE ANCIENT BRITONs'" 165 

COAST OF ENGLAND AT DOVER 

HUTS OF ANCIENT BRITONS ^^ 

A DRUID IN HIS ROBES 

DRUIDICAL RUIN 

171 

COMBAT ON THE BEACH 

1 74 

THE WALL OF SEVERUS 

1 70 

ANGLO-SAXON CHIEFTAIN 

THE CORACLES 

RUINS OF THE MONASTERY OF lONA ' ^^^ 

THE SEA-KINGS ^^^ 

lO] 

ARMS AND COSTUME OF THE DANES 

ALFRED READING TO HIS STEPMOTHER ......". ^^^ 

ALFRED LETTING THE CAKES BURN .,,' "^^ 

HASTINGS IN THE CHURCH "^^ 

SITUATION OF NORMANDY !"....!!.. ' ^^^ 

THE NEWS OF EDWARD's I.-..',TII ^^^ 

HASTINGS 214 

DEATH OF WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR ^^^ 

220 



ENGRAVINGS. IX 

PAGE 

DEATH OF WILLIAM RUFUS 222 

VIEW OF THE RAMPARTS OF ACRE 226 

SAVE ME ! SAVE ME ! 235 

VIEW OF RUNNY MEAD 237 

KING JOHN 238 

DEATH OF KING JOHN 239 

YOUNG EDWARD 242 

THE TOWER OF LONDON 243 

RICHARD AT THE COUNCIL 245 

MURDER OF THE PRINCES 248 

THE QUEEN-MOTHER MOURNING FOR HER CHILDREN 249 

KING HENRY THE EIGHTH 252 

TRIAL OF QUEEN CATHARINE 255 

THE BAPTISM OF ELIZABETH 259 

ELIZABETH'S PROGRESS TO LONDON 263 

PORTRAIT OF QUEEN ELIZABETH 267 

PROCE SS OF COINING 271 

PURITANS PULLING DO\\T!J A CROSS IN LONDON 273 

BIBLE CHAINED IN A CHURCH 274 

STRAFFORD ON HIS WAY TO EXECUTION 277 

VIEW OF WORCE STER 282 

KING CHARLES AT BOSCOBEL 285 

LANDING OP CHARLES THE SECOND AT DOVER 286 

VIEW OF EXETER 29 1 

WILLIAM OF ORANGE IN HIS CARRIAGE AT THE HAGUE 294 

LANDING OF WILLIAM, PRINCE OF ORANGE 297 

JOHN Churchill's present 304 

english iron- works 305 

wigwams 311 

interior op a wigwam 312 

indian warriors 313 

the ambush 316 

indian carousals 317 

portrait of columbu s 320 

queen isabella 325 

the caravel 326 

LAKDING of COLUMBUS 330 

ONE OF Raleigh's ships 334 

PORTRAIT OF SMITH 335 

POCAHONTAS 339 

BEGINNING OF SHIP-BUILDING IN NEW YORK 342 

NEGOTIATING WITH THE INDIANS 344 

NEW YORK IN 1664 346 



X EXGIIAVINGS. 

PAGE 

MAP OF PLYMOUTH BAY 354 

LANDING OF THK AVALLOONS 35(5 

FRAGMENT OF THE PLYMOUTH ROCK 357 

THE PLYMOUTH ROCK 357 

THE governor's HOUSE 3^0 



COLONIAL TROOPS ON A MARCH. 

THE TROOPS SURPRISED 

THE POST-MASTER-GENERAL 

THE BOSTON MASSACRE 



361 
362 
364 
369 



THROWING THE TEA OVERBOARD 3jq 

INDEPENDENCE HALL njA 

MONUMENT ON BUNKER HILL 33^ 

WASHINGTON'S HEAD-QUARTERS AT CAMBRIDGE 332 

VIEAV OF BOSTON FROM DORCHESTER HEIGHTS 333 

ADAMS, SHERM.4N, LIVINGSTON, JEFFERSON, FR.\JfKLIN 391 

JEFFERSON READING THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 392 

WASHINGTON BEFORE HE WAS APPOINTED TO THE COMMAND 397 

WASHINGTON'S HEAD-QUARTERS AT TAPPAN 393 

WASHINGTON'S TENT 099 

THE CAMP-CHEST .^.^ 

WASHINGTON CROSSING THE DELAWARE ''^^^^''^'.. 403 

BATTLE OF TRENTON .r.i 

BURGOYNE AND THE INDIAN CHIEFS 4Q7 

BURGOYNE's encampment on THE HUDSON !!."..!"! 413 

FRANKLIN AT THE FRENCH COURT. 4.I7 

BENEDICT ARNOLD ^2^ 

VIEW IN THE HIGHLANDS *' ^gO 

ROBINSONS HOUSE .^O 

MAJOR ANDRE .„, 

424 

MAP OF THE SCENE OF ARNOLD'S TREASON 425 

smith's HOUSE .^ 

LORD CORNWALLIS ,00 

REMAINS OF THE INTRENCHMENTS AT YORKTOWN 434 

SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS 44q 

MOUNT VERNON .-^ 

449 



PART I. 



ANCIENT HISTORY, 



THE STORY OF HISTORY. 



PART I. 

ANCIENT HISTORY. 



CHAPTER I. 

DISTEIBUTION OF THE HUMAN RACE. 

What k the cause of the different climates of the eartKs sur- 

' The various portions of the earth differ very much from each 
other in respect to the manner in which the sun shmes upon 
them, both in his daily and in his annual course, and very great 
diiferences are thus produced in the climates of the several regions 
and in the course of their seasons, and in all the productions of 
the soil, both plants and animals. 

Describe the tropical regions. 

In some parts of the earth, for example, the days and nights are 
always equal, the weather is always warm, and flowers and fruits 
bloom and ripen all the year round. The reason of this is, that 
these regions, being the central part of the earth, turn every day, 
as the great globe revolves, directly toward the sun. They are 
called the tropical regions.* 

. The earth turns round every day before the sun very much as an ^PP'f - ^-P™^" 
ed by a twisted string to roast, turns before the fire. The middle parts of the apple 
half way between the stem and the blossom, which are turned directly toward the fire 
as it goes round, correspond with the equatorial or tropical regions of the ^^^h. Only, 
of course, the earth is immensely large, and the sun is at such an -°™;j ''';7;^ 
that the beams of it shine very gently on the earth, even on the parts that come 
rectly opposite to its rays. 



14 DISTEIBUTION OF THE HUMAN liACE. 

Describe the Polar regions. 

In other places, there are regions where the sun does not shine 
for six months at a time, and then, when the jDeriod for his shining 
comes, he never rises high in the heavens so as to shine warm and 
full upon the ground, but moves round and round the sky just 
above the horizon. Of course, for half the year in these regions 
it is winter and night, and during the other half, though they call 
it summer, the sun shines with very faint and feeble rays. In 
consequence of this, scarcely any plants grow upon the land, and 
the sea is covered at all times, both in summer and winter, with 
immense floating fields and mountains of ice. These are the 
Polar regions. The northern Polar regions are called the Arctic, 
regions. The southern Polar regions have been very little ex- 
plored. They are called the Antarctic regions. 
Describe the temperate i^egions. 

Then, besides these two extremes, there are the temperate re- 
gions, which lie between them. We ourselves live in the temper- 
ate regions. Here, for half of the year, the sun rises high in the 
heavens, and his beams are warm. During this period the grass 
grows, the flowers bloom, the fruits ripen, and tlie land is ricli 
with waving fields of corn and grain. Then comes the winter, 
when the sun declines, and all vegetation ceases, and the ground 
IS bound up with frost or covered with snow. 

How has Nature adapted man to these different regions ? 
Of course, regions so different from each other as these must 
not only produce altogether different kinds of plants and animals, 
but very different kinds of men, we might suppose, would be re- 
quired to inhabit them. Nature has accordingly provided a great 
variety of races of men to occupy the several portions of the earth, 
the people of each race being adapted, both in their bodily consti- 
tutions and in the capacities of their minds, for the situation in 
which they dwell, though they are all, as the Scriptures inform us, 
descended from one common origin. 



DISTRIBUTION OF THE HUMAN RACE. 



15 



What kind of animals inhabit the Polar regions f 
In the Polar regions, where the sun is gone entirely for half the 
year, and shines very faintly and feebly for the other half, no plants 
except mosses, and lichens, and a few stunted shrubs can ever 
grow ; but then the shores of the seas, and the fields and islands 
of ice, and all the lakes and bays, are thronged with animals. The 
sea is full of whales, seals, walruses, and other monsters, that are 




IN Till': Ar.CTUI EKGIONS. 



kept warm in the winter by the thick coats of blubber or fat which 
envelop them, while on the land, and over the fields of ice, white 
bears, wolverines, foxes, and other fierce beasts of prey are con- 
stantly prowling. These land animals are kept warm by their y^n 
Then, in the summer, immense flocks of ducks, and geese, and 
gulls, and other wild-fowl throng the lakes, and rivers, and bays, 
and swamps that lie along these shores, to make their nests and 
rear their young. Before the long winter night sets in, however, 
the birds fly away across the continent thousands of miles, taking 
with them the young birds that they have reared. These birds 
are kept warm by ih^xx feathers. 

What qualities in men are required for these regions ? 

To live and to thrive in such regions as these, men must be of 
a very hardy constitution, so as to be able to bear cold without in- 
jury. They must be fitted, too, to subsist almost entirely on flesh 



t 



16 



DISTEIBUTION OF THE HUMAN RACE. 




GllEEMLANliKU A 



and other animal food, since scarcely any vegetables grow in siicli 

_ .^^ a clime. They must 

j^-- :^^ J^^W^!L^_jM^^r^^,^^i^^ ^^^^ be endued with pow- 

^ ^^^^^ ers and capacities of 

p : . mind high enoup'h to 

C / enable them to hunt 

I wild beasts, to catch 

and kill whales and 
seals, and to build 
. such huts as they 
need, and yet not so 
hio-has to make them 

o 

discontented or rest- 
less with their mo- 
notonous* and solitary country, and with the half-torpid life that 
they must lead during the long dark and dismal night of their 
winter. 

Describe the modes of life of the Polar tribes. 

These are, in fact, the characteristics of the various races of men 
that are found dwelling on the Polar shores. They can live alto- 
gether on the coarsest flesh. They can endure the greatest ex- 
tremes of cold. They build huts of the drift-wood that is brought 
down by the rivers, and is then washed by the sea upon their 
shores. They cover their huts with earth three or four feet thick 
to keep them warm, leaving an opening for a door in front large 
enough to creep in and out. When they have no drift-wood, they 
build their huts of blocks of snow, arching them over at the to]) 
like an oven or a dome. They light and warm their huts suffi- 
ciently for their purpose by means of big lamps fed by whale oil. 
They set traps for animals on land ; they take fish in the lakes and 
at the rapids in the river with nets and hooks, and they kill seals 
and whales with harpoons and spears. They can travel on foot 
* That which is in every part alike — without variety. 



DISTRIBUTION OF THE HUMAN RACE. 



17 



over the snow with snow-shoes which the women make for them, 
while some of the natives train dogs, and others reindeer, to draw 
them in sledges over the ice and snow. These people sometimes 




ESQUIMAUX. 



endure suffering, it is true, as all men must, but generally they are 
contented and happy in the condition in which God has placed 
them, so well are they adapted to it. They could not easily be 
persuaded to change their country or their modes of life for those 
of any other people. 

What is known of the history of these tribes f 
There are a great many separate races and nations of these Arc- 
tic men, nearly all of \\hom have probably lived where they do 
now, and as they do now, for hundreds and hundreds of years. 
Their history, if it could be known, would consist only of accounts 
of the wars which they have waged w^ith each other, and of the 
seasons of famine and distress which they have sometimes endured. 
But their history is not known, nor would the rest of mankind feel 
any special interest in it if it could be discovered. 
What is the state of things in the tropical regions f 
In tropical regions, the state of the case is entirely changed. 
Here the days and nights are nearly equal all the year, and the 

B 



18 DISTEIBUTION OF THE HUMAN EACE. 

sun ascends every day into the mid-heavens, and shines down di- 
rectly upon the land with his most powerful rays. There is no 
winter. Frost and snow are unknown. There is, indeed, no 
spring, nor autumn, but summer reigns supreme throughout the 
year. 

What forms of animal and vegetable life j^revail in the trop- 
ical regions f 

Of course, in a region like this, plants thrive luxuriantly. Flow- 
ers bloom and fruits ripen in perpetual and ceaseless succession, 
furnishing to man and beast an abundance of food without labor or 
care. Trees grow in the forests to an enormous magnitude, dense 
underwood springs up among them, and vines and creepers twist 
and twine about their stems, and hang in festoons from their 
branches, and bind them all together in an intricate, impenetrable 
maze. In these entangled thickets lions, tigers, and hyenas roam 
and prowl in search of prey, and apes, monkeys, and parrots, and 
thousands of other birds of gaudy plumage, chatter, and sing, and 
play among the branches through all the year. 

What are the characteristics of the men that inhabit the trojp- 
ical regions f 

The circumstances being thus so entirely different in the trop- 
ical regions from those of the Arctic or frigid zone, the men fitted 
to dwell in them are different too. Their color is black, that they 
can better resist the heat of the sun. Their constitutions are such 
that, while they can not endure cold, they enjoy heat, and thrive 
in it. They love the sun. In temper of mind they are quiet and 
gentle. 

What are their wants in respect to food and clothing ? 

As the season in their country is always warm, and as fruits 
grow abundantly without tilling of the ground, these people have 
very little to do to procure themselves food and clothing. Very 
sHghtly-built huts are sufficient, too, to form their lodgings, as they 
only need dwellings to shelter them from the rain. Thus they 



DISTRIBUTION OF THE HUMAN RACE. 



19 




al savage-s 



live almost like the animals that inhabit the forests around them, 
eating what comes most readily to hand, and spending the rest of 
the time in luxurious repose. They need no high intellectual 
powers, no capacities for enduring hardship or hunger, and no spirit 
of industry or ambition, and they are consequently not endued 
with them. 

Describe the Bushmen, 

Some of these tropical nations occupy a very humble position 
indeed in the scale of humanity. There is a race called Bush- 
men, who live in the southern part of Africa, whose life is almost 
wholly animal. They build no houses, but sleep under the trees, 
or in holes which they burrow in the ground. They live on roots, 
nuts, and insects, and are as wild as the chimpanzees or orang- 
outangs, which they much resemble. 

What are the princijjal tropical countries ? 

The tropical portions of the earth that are inhabited by races 
like these are the central parts of Africa and South America, the 
islands of the Pacific Ocean that are near the equator, and a por- 
tion of New Holland. 



20 DISTRIBUTION OF THE HUMAN KACE. 

In what res2)ect does the conditioJi of the Polar and trojpical 
nations agree? 

These tropical savages differ very widely from the wild men 
that dwell about the poles in all their mental and bodily powers 
and qualities, and in their modes of life. In one respect, however, 
they agree with them, namely, in this, that their past history has 
ueven been written, and it can now, therefore, never be known ; 
nor, indeed, would mankind in general be expected to take much 
interest in the history of such wild and savage tribes, even if it 
could be known. 

Describe the condition of things in the tem^yerate regions. 

We now come to the temperate portions of the earth. Here 
the course of the seasons, and the action of the sun on vegetable 
hfe, are such as to require the exercise of far higher and more in- 
tellectual qualities in man than are necessary either in the tropics 
or at the poles, because here man must till the ground during half 
of the year, and lay up stores of food produced by this tillage for 
the other half. Of course, he must be able to devise agricultural 
implements, and to make inclosures to defend his fields from wild 
Ijcasts, and to tame animals to do his work, and to buikl bams 
and granaries for his stores of food, and houses to protect his fam- 
ily from the cold of winter. To meet these exigencies of their 
condition, the races that have lived in the temperate regions have 
been endued Avith higher and more intellectual natures than those 
that have been before described, and the powers that they have 
been endued with have been greatly improved by the cultivation 
and the exercise of them. 

What are the characteristics of the 7Xices that inhabit the tem- 
perate regions ? 

The consequence has been, that these races have formed them- 
selves into extensive and powerful nations, and made innumerable 
discoveries and improvements in the arts of life. They have es- 
tablished systematic governments, and enrolled immense armies, 



DISTRIBUTION OF THE HUMAN RACE. 



21 



and organized vast combinations of various kinds, to accomplisli 
objects beyond the powers of individual men. Tliey have dug 
deep mines down through the most soHd rocks, and extended them 
under the beds of rivers, and even beneath the sea, to procure 
metals and coal. They have constructed roads, and invented 

wheel vehicles to run 
upon them, some by 
the power of animals, 
tud others by the 
power of steam ; and 
ships and steamers 
for the sea, in order 
to convey the pro- 
ductions of one coun- 
tiy to another for the 
purpose of exchange. 
They have built vast 
cities to place the 
public and general 
stores of these productions in. They have investigated the laws 
of nature, and by their science and art have learned to surmount 
the greatest physical obstacles, and to perform the most astonish- 
ing exploits ; and, finally, by means of various arts of writing 
which they have invented, they have kept, for many centuries, 
regular records of their history. 

What are the principal nations that have been formed from 
these races f 

There are a great many distinct races of men that have thus 
formed civilized nations in the temperate regions of the earth. 
The principal of them are the Chinese, the Japanese, the Tartars, 
the Hindoos, the Persians, the Assyrians, the Greeks, the Egyp- 
tians, the Romans, the Russians, the Germans, the French, the 
Spaniards, the Moors, the British, the IMexicans, the Central 




INDUSTRIAL ARTS. 



22 DISTEIBUTION OF THE HUMAN KACE. 

Americans, and, lastly, ourselves — the Americans. All these 
have preserved records, more or less complete and authentic, of 
the events of their history. 

How far is the history of these 7iatiom of interest to us f 

Of these various nations, however, there are very few whose 
history is of any special interest or of any practical value to us. 
That in which we are chiefly concerned is simply the line of our 
own history, traced back through the nations that preceded us, 
and from which we descended, to ancient times. 

What course do we take in tracing hack the line of our oivn 
history f 

In going back to retrace this line, we follow, for two hundred 
years, the history of our own country. The people that settled 
this country two hundred years ago came from England. Of 
course, when we arrive at the origin of this nation, we proceed to 
the line of English History, which we follow back for about sixteen 
hundred years, to the point of its connecting with the Eoman em- 
pire near the time of Christ. We here enter the field of what is 
called Ancient History, and we follow the line back through the 
Romans, Greeks, Persians, Assyrians, and Egyptians, till the rec- 
ord loses itself in the legends and traditions of the remotest an- 
tiquity. Thus the course of history which is of practical interest 
and value to us divides itself into three periods. 

What are the three general branches of the subject f 

1. Ancient History, extending from the earliest records to the 
decline and fall of the Roman empire. 

2. English History, extending from the commencement of the 
first origin of the British government to the colonization of Amer- 
ica. 

3. American History, extending from the first colonization of 
this country to the present time. 

What digressions will he required f 

In following this course, however, we shall not absolutely be 



NINEVEH AND THE ASSYEIANS. 23 

confined to the history of the nations that come directly in the 
line, but sliall be led to frequent digressions among nations inci- 
dentally and collaterally connected with them. 



CHAPTER II. 

NINEVEH AND THE ASSYRIANS. 

W/iat territory was first sought for settlement by the earliest 
inhabitants of Asia ? 

When the people were scattered abroad on the earth at the 
original dispersion of mankind, as described in the Scriptures, they 
would naturally, at first, seek out the most fertile regions, and 
those most easily tilled, to live in, and in these regions they would, 
of course, most rapidly increase and multiply. Accordingly, the 
first glimpses that we obtain of the history of the human race in 
those remote ages relate to several nations which seemed to spring 
up at a very early period, and nearly at the same time, on the 
borders of certain great rivers of that portion of the world which, 
as it happened, flowed through regions of extraordinary natural 
fertility. 

What were the principal natio7is tlmt were thus formed? 

The principal nations that thus early organized themselves in 
these great river districts were these, namely, the Assyrians in the 
country of the Tigris, the Babylonians in that of the Euphrates, 
and the Egyptians in the valley of the Nile. In addition to these 
there was another very important nation, the PhcBuicians, whose 
country was near the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea. 

What was the situation of these countries f 

The situation of these ancient nations in respect to each other 
you will see by the following map. The first named of them, 
the Assyrians, as appears by the map, occupied the country wa- 
tered by the Tigris, and their capital was Nineveh. 



24 



NINEVEH AND THE ASSYEIANS. 




-K^W^^ 




'"^^^ ^ I 













^__^j CaloT^j^ 






■h 




TFA<z^ ^^YW z'Ad eajntal of Assyi'ia f Of Babylonia ? 

We should have known probably very little about the Assyrians 
at the present time had it not been for the celebrity attained by 
the city of Nineveh, which was the capital of the country, and 
which acquired great renown all over the world in its day for its 
magnificence and splendor. It was the same in respect to Bab- 
ylon and the Babylonians, who will form the subject of the next 
lesson. 

What are the sources of information in resiject to these cities 
at the 2^resent day f 

At the time when these cities flourished the art of writing was 
not known, so it happens that no true and authentic accounts have 
come down to us respecting them. There were, however, a great 
many legends and tales that were related in those days in regard 
to the manner in which tliey were built, and to the people who 
lived in them ; and these tales, when the art of writing was at 
length discovered, were narrated more or less fully in the works 
of various authors, and thus have come down to our dav. 



NINEVEH AND THE ASSYRIANS. 2o 

WAat evidence is there in respect to the truth of these accounts? 

It is impossible now to determine how far these tales are true. 
There is no doubt, however, that the cities themselves really ex- 
isted, and that they were very prosperous and powerful, for the 
places where they stood have been found at the present day, and 
the ground is covered for miles with long grassy ridges and mounds, 
which are found, on digging into them, to be filled with ruins and 
remains of every kind, bricks, sculptures, utensils, images, columns, 
and almost every other kind of architectural relic. Some of these 
relics will be presently described. 

Which was the oldest of these cities f 

Nineveh is supposed to have been the oldest of these two cities ; 
at least, the period of its power and prosperity was earlier than 
that in which Babylon flourished. Some of the legends and tales 
that are related of its early history are very curious and enter- 
taining. 

In what luay do great cities usually arise at the2rresent day, 
and in what situations f 

And here it must be remarked, that cities and towns in ancient 
times were founded and built up very differently from those of the 
present day. Now they grow up gradually of themselves, as it 
were, as places of trade or of manufacture, wherever conveniences 
naturally exist for carrying on these pursuits, as, for example, at 
good landing-places on livers, or around harbors on the sea, or by 
the side of waterfalls, where the floAV of the water can be used to 
drive mills and machinery. 

And how did great cities usually originate in ancient times f 

In ancient times they were built by kings and chieftains to 
gather the people into for defense, or to make safe places for the 
residence of their courts, or the head-quarters of the armies. 

What sort of defenses were constructed ? 

The first thing to be done, therefore, in founding an ancient city, 
was to build a wall about it to protect the people within. It was 



26 NINEVEH AND THE ASSYEIANS. 

not necessary, in general, that these walls should be very strong, 
for there were no cannon in those days, nor any other means of 
battering down a wall except to hurl stones and beams of wood 
against it, or to undermine and overthrow it by means of pickaxes, 
spades, and levers. 

Where do we find the first account of the founding of Nin- 
eveh f 

The first foundation of Nineveh took place at so early a period 
that the event is recorded in the Book of Genesis, where, in chap- 
ter X., 11, it is said, "Out of that land went Ashur, and builded 
Nineveh." The place was undoubtedly, at first, only a small 
walled town — a sort of stronghold of the chieftains who first occu- 
pied it to retreat to with their troops, and a place for the laborers 
to live in who cultivated the neighboring fields. It gradually in- 
creased, however, and became, at length, great and powerful. 

From lohat source probably ivas its early prosperity first de- 
mved ? 

This prosperity was owing, in part, to the very fertile character 
of the suiTOunding country ; for the whole country through which 
the Tigris and Euphrates flow is a vast plain, wliich has been 
famed from the earliest ages for the beauty of the scenery and the 
fruitfulness of the soil. 

What tnonarch first made it a great cajntal f 

Nineveh did not, however, acquire any considerable celebrity 
for centm'ies after this time. It was made a great capital at last 
by Ninus, a king of the country, who arose some centuries later, 
and became a mighty conqueror. Ninus possessed greater talents 
than the kings and chieftains around him for organizing armies 
and carrying on wars, and so he invaded the territories of his 
neighbors, and conquered them, in spite of all their efforts to re- 
sist him, and thus brought their lands under his dominion, com- 
pelling the laborers who tilled the fields to pay tribute and taxes 
to him instead of to them, and to work for him in building the 



NINEVEH AND THE ASSYRIANS. 27 

walls of cities and towns. Thus lie made himself master of a 
great empire. 

Describe the plans icJiich Ninus adopted for making Nineveh 
a great capital. 

When at last he was well established in his power, he determ- 
ined to build a splendid capital for the metropolis of his kingdom, 
and he made choice of Nineveh, which was well situated on the 
banks of the river, in a central part of his dominions, for the site 
of it. He accordingly began to lay his plans for the new city, 
and then proceeded to execute them on a very grand and magnif- 
icent scale by means of the money which he collected from the 
people, and of the labors which he compelled them to perform. 
He built new and strong walls around it, and reared splendid pal- 
aces, and laid out parks and gardens, and collected together a large 
population of merchants and artisans to carry on commerce and 
manufactures in it, and then, when his work was finished, he in- 
vited all the princes, potentates, and nobles of his realms to come 
and make it their abode. 

What was the onjnre called over which Ninus ruled ? 

The empire which Ninus thus established, and of which Nine- 
veh became the capital, was the Assyrian empire — the first great 
empire of ancient times. 

^Yho ivas the most celebrated sovereign of the Assyrian line? 

Ninus was succeeded by a line of Assyrian sovereigns, of whom 
the most celebrated of all was the renowned Queen Semiramis. 
She was the queen of Ninus during that monarch's lifetime, and 
after his death she reigned for a time herself as regent for her son, 
who was very young when his father died. 

What led the people of those days to invent such loonderful 
tales about their sovereigns f 

The story of Semiramis's life was a very marvelous one. ^len 
were accustomed in those days to invent very wonderful tales 
about their kings and queens, partly to impress the people with 



28 NINEVEH AND THE ASSYEIANS. 

very exalted ideas of these personages, and partly to amuse them 
by the narration of interesting stories. Of course, at the present 
day, these tales are not beheved, but it is useful to know what 
they were. 

Helate the account that was given of the hirth of Semiramis. 

The story of Semiramis is that she was the child of a goddess. 
This goddess lived on the banks of a beautiful lake, which had the 
magical power of changing into fish every thing that fell into the 
water. The goddess, soon after the babe was born, determined, in 
a fit of passion, to kill the father of her child, who was a young 
shepherd that lived near the lake, and also to kill herself. She 
wished to destroy the babe too, but she could not bear to kill it 
with her own hands, and so she carried it into a lonely place in the 
woods, and left it there under a tree to die. When she had thus 
disposed of the child, she murdered the young shepherd its father, 
and immediately afterward she leaped into the lake herself, intend- 
ing to destroy her own life. Instead of being drowned, however, 
she was turned into a fish by the magical power of the water, and 
from that time she continued to live in the lake in that form all 
the rest of her days. 

How was the hahe saved from perishing in the woods? What 
was the name of the she^oherd icho received her f 

Nor did the poor child die that had been left exposed in the 
wood. A flock of doves found her lying there under the tree, and 
they at once took compassion on her. While some of them hov- 
ered about the spot to watch over her as she lay, others went off 
to the neighboring cottages to see if they could not, in some way 
or other, contrive to bring her food to eat. The shepherds who 
lived in the cottages saw the doves, and, observing their extraor- 
dinary actions, determined to follow them into the woods and see 
what it meant. The doves led the shepherds to the place wliere 
the babe was lying. The shepherds took the child, and carried 
her home, and one of them, a man named Simma, having no chil- 



NINEVEH AND THE ASSYRIANS. 



29 




SEMI R AMIS IX THE WOOD. 



dren of liis own, adopted her. He named her Semiramis, and 
brought her up in his cottage as his own child. 

Relate the circumstances of her marriage. 

As Semiramis grew up, she became renowned through all the 
country around for her beauty, her wit, her graceful manners, and 
the sweetness of her disposition. Now it happened that Simma, 
her adopted father, was chief of Ninus's shepherds in this prov- 
ince, and when Semiramis was about seventeen years of age, and 
in the highest bloom of her beauty, the king sent one of his chief 
officers, named Menon, to make a survey of his flocks there. Mc- 
non came to the country of the shepherds to attend to this duty, 
and so saw Semiramis at Simma's house. He was enraptured 
with her beauty and her grace, and he immediately offered her his 
hand. Semiramis was for a long time unwilling to leave her 
adopted father and her happy home among the shepherds, but 
finally she allowed herself to be persuaded, and she became Mc- 
lion's wife. Shortly afterward she bade her fatlier and all her old 



30 NINEVEH AND THE ASSYEIANS. 

companions farewell, and went away with Menon, in great state, 
to Nineveh. 

How teas he}' husband at length temjoorarily separated from 
her f How did she rejoin him ? 

She lived in Nineveh two or three years very happily, until at 
length, in one of the wars in which Nineveh was engaged, Menon, 
who was a general in the army, was called upon to accompany the 
king on a grand military expedition which he was about to make 
into the country of the Bactrians, which lies to the eastward of 
Assyria. The expedition was quite successful for a time, but at 
last the army arrived before a city called Bactra, which made so 
obstinate a resistance that for a long time they could not subdue 
it. They encamped about it, and invested it closely on every side, 
but the walls were strong and high, and they could not gain ad- 
mission into the city. At length, after a considerable time had 
passed, Menon began to wish to see his wife again, whom he had 
left in Nineveh, and, as he could not be spared from the army to 
go and visit her, he sent word by a messenger requesting her to 
come and visit him. She was very ready to come, and, in order 
to travel more safely, she disguised herself as a young man, and 
in this way made the journey without meeting with any molesta- 
tion. In due time she arrived safely at the camp. Menon was 
overjoyed to see her. 

Describe the exjoloit ivhich she performed at the siege. 

Semiramis immediately began to take an interest in the siege, 
and, after examining carefully the situation of the army and of the 
town, she observed that there was a certain tower at a corner, 
which, being built on a rocky eminence, had been left somewhat 
unguarded. She said to her husband that if he w^ould give her a 
band of good and true men, such as she would choose out of his 
troops, she would climb up to that tower and get possession of it, 
and thus gain access to the city. Menon consented. Semiramis 
made the attempt, and succeeded triumphantly. She climbed up 



NINEVEH AND THE ASSYRIANS. 



31 



with her men to the tower, and, as soon as they had got upon the 
wall, they made signals to the army below, and opened the gates 
and let them in. Thus the city was taken. 



/Tii^'hs^- 



"^fe " IS- 




SEMIRAMIS ON THE WALL. 



What was the result of this trayisaction f 

The king was, of course, struck with admiration at the heroism 
of the deed, especially when he learned that the leader of the band 
that scaled the tower was a young and beautiful woman, the wife 
of one of his generals. He immediately sent for her, and when he 
came to see her, he was so much struck with her beauty and com- 
manding air, that he told Menon that if he would give her up to 
him he would give him his daughter Sosana for a wife. 

Hoio did Menon receive the king's projposal f How did the 
affair end? 

Menon absolutely and positively refused to make any such ex- 
change. " Then," said Ninus, " I will compel you to give her up. 
I will torture you till you do, and I will begin at once by putting 
out your eyes." Menon was dreadfully distressed and temfied by 



62 NINEVEH AND THE ASSYRIANS. 

these threats, but still he would not give up his wife, and, finally, 
he was driven to such a pitch of desperation in his anguish that 
he killed himself. Ninus then married Semiramis, and thus she 
became the Assyrian queen. What she herself thought of these 
proceedings, and how she felt at being thus transferred from one 
husband to another, no one knows. There is no evidence that she 
made any objection. 

What became of Semiramis after her viarriage to the hing f 

Ninus returned to Nineveh, taking Semiramis with him, and 
there they lived together in peace and prosperity. After a time 
they had a son named Ninyas, and not long after Ninyas was bom, 
Xinus died. Semiramis herself then took possession of the em- 
pire in the name of her son, and she reigned for many years in 
great magnificence and splendor. She greatly enlarged the city, 
and adorned it with many sumptuous edifices. She caiTied on 
many foreign wars, and built and embellished a great many cities, 
and performed a vast number of heroic exploits. She died at 
length, after having acquired a character of having been one of the 
most remarkable women that ever lived. 

Who teas Sardanajpalus? What loas his character? 

The first severe shock which the Assyrian empire received took 
place under the reign of a monarch named Sardanapalus. He was 
a very efieminate and dissolute man. He spent almost all his time 
shut up in his palaces with the dancing and singing women and 
girls that he kept there for his amusement, and he devoted himself 
entirely to the kind of pursuits and occupations that such women 
would be naturally pleased with, until at length he carried his 
effeminacy to an almost incredible extreme. He used to dress 
himself in woman's attire, and curl his hair, and paint his face, 
and put on jewels and other ornaments such as women Avere ac- 
customed to wear in those days. Indeed, he seemed to wish that 
he was a woman himself, and he did all in his power to change 
himself into one. 



NINEVEH AND THE ASSYKIANS. 



33 



W/iai effect did his mode of lifejproduce f Who headed the 
C07ispiracies formed against him/ 

Of course, such a mode of life as this rendered the man odious 
and contemptible to his subjects, and very soon the aflrairs of the 
government, being wholly neglected, became involved in great con- 
fusion. The people were indignant at this misrule, and very soon 
i\\Q governors of some of the great provinces began to plan a re- 
bellion. One of the chief leaders in these plots was Arbaces, the 
governor of Media. He wished very much to obtain acces's to 
Sardanapalus in his palace, in order to see for himself whether his 
conduct was as effeminate and disgraceful as public rumor repre- 
sented it. For a long time, however, he could not succeed. The 
servants of the palace, according to Sardanapalus's orders, would 
not allow visitors to 2:0 in. 

o 

IIoio did Arbaces at length contrive to gain admittance to the 
palace f What ivas the result of his observations f 

At length Arbaces applied to a eunuch, who is a sort of servant 
employed a great deal by Oriental sovereigns, and offered him a 




34 NINEVEH AND THE ASSYllIANS. 

golden cup as a bribe to induce him to admit him to see the king. 
The eunuch yielded to this temptation, and xlrbaces went into the 
palace in disguise. He was fully conhrmed in his opinion of the 
infamy of Sardanapalus's conduct by what he saw. He commu- 
nicated the results of his observations to the other leaders, and 
they immediately matured their plans. The rebellion broke out, 
and the whole country was soon involved in war. 

What was the end of the rebellion ? What desj)erate jplan 
did Sardanapalus at last adojjt f 

The rebels gradually gained gi'ound against the king, defeating 
his armies one after another, until at length Sardanapalus himself 
was obliged to retreat to Nineveh, where he was closely shut up, 
and reduced to the greatest straits. At last, finding that there 
was no hope for him, and being determined that neither he him- 
self, nor any of his household, nor even his treasures, should fall 
into the hands of his enemies, he resolved upon destroying them 
all. So he selected from among his palaces one which stood, 
among others, in the midst of an inclosure of parks and gardens 
in the heart of the city, and ordered all his treasures to be carried 
there, his gold and silver utensils, his costly armor, his stores of 
embroidered garments, his signets, his jewels, and his gems. He 
also sent to the same palace his women, his eunuchs, his dancing 
and singing girls, and all his household. Finally, he went in him- 
self, and then ordered the doors to be shut and barred, and the pal- 
ace to be set on fire. The order was obeyed, and the palace, with 
the king himself, his household, and all his treasures, were burned 
up together. 

Describe the conflagration. 

So great was the pile, that the fire continued to burn, they said, 
for fifteen days. There was a wall around the inclosure which 
was guarded all the time by soldiers, who, in accordance with the 
king's command, would not let any body come in. The people 
outside saw the smoke of the fire, but it was several days before 



NINEVEH AND THE ASSYRIANS. 35 

they found out what such a great conflagration among the palace 
buildings could mean. They thought it was some great sacrifice 
that the king was offering. 

What became of the Assyriaii eiivpire at the death of Sar- 
danapalus f 

At the death of Sardanapalus, the first or great Assyrian em- 
pire came to an end ; for the leaders of the rebellion, when Sar- 
danapalus was overthrown, divided the empire into three separate 
kingdoms, making one for each of them. Of these ncAV kingdoms, 
Media was one. Babylonia was another, and what remained of As- 
syria, with Nineveh for the capital, was the third. 

What became of Nineveh f 

The city of Nineveh never recovered from the blow that it re- 
ceived at the revolution that took place in the days of Sardanapa- 
lus. It gradually declined in wealth and power, while the other di- 
visions of the empire. Babylonia and Media, gradually increased, 
and at length, a few hundred years later, the kings of these two 
realms united together in one of the wars that broke out, and laid 
siege to Nineveh. The people of Nineveh defended themselves as 
well as they could, but the defense they made only served to ex- 
asperate their enemies, so that at length, when the Babylonians 
and ]\Iedians succeeded in getting possession of the city, they were 
so infuriated against the inhabitants that they sacked it, and de- 
stroyed it altogether. The territories of the Assyrians were after 
this absorbed in those of their conquerors, and thus this famous 
empire, considered as a separate and independent power, came to 
a final end. 

What calculation has been made in respect to the duration of 
the Assyrian empire? 

Although so little is known at the present day of the Assyrian 
empire, or of the kings that ruled over it, the period during which 
its power and prosperity continued was very long. According to 
the best calculations that can now be made, the town of Nineveh 



36 BABYLON. 

was first built 2400 years before Christ, and it was not till 900 
years before Christ that the great empire was brought to an end 
in the days of Sardanapalus. The smaller empire continued 300 
years more. Thus the whole duration of this famous dominion 
extended over a period of 1800 years, which is nearly as long as 
from the Christian era to the present time. 



CHAPTER III. 

BABYLON. 

What teas the situation of Bahylon in respect to Ninemh f 
By looking at the map placed near the commencement of the 
last chapter, you will see the situation of Babylon in respect to 
Nineveh. Nineveh was on the Tigris, while Babylon was on the 
Euphrates. The distance of one of these cities from the other was 
about three hundred miles in a straight line, and considerably 
farther by the course of the river. 
Which was the most ancient city f 

It is very probable that Babylon was originally built at as early 
a period as Nineveh ; but as the period of its independent power 
and its greatest prosperity was much later, we have received more 
full accounts of it than of the former city. 

When did Babylonia become an independent kingdom f 
During the time that the Assyrian empire was in the height of 
its power and splendor, the region of country in which Babylon 
was situated, which was called Babylonia, was a part of it, and 
was ruled by a governor who derived his power from the King of 
Assyria. After the destruction of Nineveh in the time of Sarda- 
napalus, as related in the last chapter, this province became an in- 
dependent kingdom, and the power and wealth for which Nineveh 
had been so renowned was transferred in a great measure to Bab- 
ylon, its great southern rival. 



BABYLON. 37 

W/io was gomrnor of Babylon at the time of the fall of Sar- 
danapalnsf What thought occurred to him after the burning 
of the treasures f 

There was one transaction, by wliich the wealth of Babylon was 
increased at the expense of Nineveh, that was very curious. It 
occurred immediately after the fall of Sardanapalus and the bum- 
ing of his treasures. It happened that the name of the governor 
of Babylon at that time was Belesis. He was one of the rebels 
who conspired against Sardanapalus. After the fire was over, and 
he and his fellow-conspirators had obtained fall possession of the 
city, it occurred to him that there must be a large amount of val- 
ue in the form of gold and silver, and perhaps of other things no' 
fully consumed, remaining in the ruins. 

What means did he contrive for getting j^ossession of the treas- 
ure that remained? 

So he wished to get possession of all the remains of the fire., 
and he contrived this ingenious way of doing it. He informed 
the other rebel generals that in the midst of the fight he had made 
a vow to the god of Assyria that, if the god would grant him vic- 
tory, he would convey all the ashes of the conflagration to Bab- 
ylon, and deposit them in a great temple which he would build tc 
receive them there in honor of the god. 

"And now," said he, "since victory has been bestowed upor. 
us, I feel bound to fulfill my vow." 
What was the result of this scheme f 

Of course, the generals could not well make any objection to so 
pious a proposal as this, and so Belesis set his men at work to 
gather up all the remains of the fire and convey them to Babylon, 
and there immense quantities of gold and silver were found, which 
Belesis employed in embellishing the city and in enriching his 
royal treasures. 

Hoio viuch is Tcnown of the line of Babylonian kings f 

Belesis made Babylon a great and wealthy capital. After him 



38 BABYLON. 

we find, in ancient accounts, a record of a line of monarchs whose 
reigns extended over a period of several hundred years. We know 
nothing, however, of all these kings except their names. Indeed, 
after the time of Belesis, the first information that was obtained 
of the Babylonian history is the accounts contained in the Scrip- 
tures of the intercourse and connection between the Babylonians 
and the Jews. 

W/iat tvas the first act of intercoxtrse hetween the King of 
Babylon arid the Jeivs ? 

The first act of intercourse was a very friendly one. The King 
of Babylon sent a complimentary embassy to King Hezekiah to 
congratulate him on his recovery from sickness. Hezeldah re- 
ceived the messengers with great distinction, and showed them all 
his treasures. 

Through what regions did the road hetween these countries lay? 

By referring again to the map, you will see that the distance 
from Babylon to Jerusalem was not very great, though the road 
from one of these cities to the other lay through a somewhat 
dreary and desert country. Jerusalem was nearly west of Baby- 
lon, as you will see. 

What effect did the display which Hezekiah made of his treas- 
ures have uj^on the Babylonians? What consequences ensued? 

Hezekiah acted very unwisely in making such a parade of his 
treasures to the Babylonian embassadors, for, of course, their re- 
port to the king, when they should get home, would awaken in 
his mind a desire to get possession of them. This, indeed, was 
the effect ; and before a long time, wars broke out between the 
Babylonians and the Jews, and a series of invasions took place, 
in the course of which all the Jewish treasures were seized and 
carried ofi", and at last the people themselves were made captives, 
and driven across the deserts to Babylon, to work as slaves for 
their conquerors there.* 

* The curious circumstances under which the wars between the kings of Babylon 



BABYLON. 



:39 




KINQ HEZEKIAH SHOWING HIS TREASURES. 

Hoio ivere the cajjtive Jews employed in Babylon f 
The work which they had principally to do was to dig water- 
courses for the overflow of the rivers — the lands all about Baby- 
lon beino; low and level — to make dikes and embankments, to 

and the Jews first broke out, and all the particulars of the several invasions, are given 
in a very interesting manner in the books of Kings and Chronicles, beginning at 
2 Kings, xxiii., 29. 



40 BABYLON. 

make bricks, and build walls and towers with them, and to con- 
struct other public edifices in and about the city, and to perform 
personal services for their owners. 

How long did the captivity last f 

This captivity lasted seventy years. How it terminated we 
shall presently see. 

Who was the most celebrated of the Babylonian kings f 

The king who figured most conspicuously, perhaps, among all 
the Babylonian sovereigns, was Nebuchadnezzar. He was one of 
the greatest and most renowned of all the kings of Babylon. He 
very much enlarged the city, and embellished it with most mag- 
nificent structures, so as to make it, at the time, the wonder of 
the world. 

IIoio is the city described by the ancient historians? 

The most marvelous accounts have come down to us of the ex- 
tent and grandeur which Babylon attained when the improvements 
which he made in it were completed. The sides of the city, it 
was said, were fifteen miles in length ; this would make tlie in- 
closed area more than two hundred square miles. We must not 
suppose, however, by any means, that all this great space was oc- 
cupied with streets and buildings, for the cities of that age of the 
world always included vast spaces of open ground, w^hich were 
used for parka, gardens, forests for hunting, and even for tillage 
umd. Indeed, Babylon, as represented by the writers of those 
days, was a small kingdom inclosed in walls rather than a city. 

Describe the tcalls, IIoio ivere the Babylonian bricks man- 
'(factured f 

The w^alls were very thick and very high. They w^ere built of 
brick, and were cemented by a bituminous sort of slime, which is 
found in that part of the country, and which answers exceedingly 
w^ell instead of mortar. The reason why bricks were used for 
architectural constructions in Babylon instead of stone was, that 
there were no stone -quarries near, the country for hundreds of 



BABYLOX. 41 

miles, up and down the river, consisting of level plains, which seem 
to have been formed almost entirely by alluvial deposits from the 
river. The soil beneath the surface in all these plains was formed 
by a sort of half-indurated mud and slime, which could be cut out 
by the spade in square blocks, and these blocks, wlien dried, made 
very good bricks without baking. Thus, in fortifying the city, the 
material which came out of the ditches was used to make the wall, 
and this was so convenient that it was easy to make the ditch very 
wide and deep, and the wall very broad and high. It was said 
that the walls of Babylon were so broad in some places that ten 
or fifteen carriages could drive abreast upon the top of them. 

Describe the form of the city and the ai^rangement of the 
streets. 

The city was square, and there were twenty-five gates on each 
side, making one hundred gates in all. There were twenty-five 
streets each way, running from the gates on one side to those on 
the other. These streets crossed each other at right angles, and 
divided the whole interior area of the city into six or seven hund- 
red squares or blocks, each of which must have been about three 
quarters of a mile in length each way. The houses and other ed- 
ifices of the city were built only along the margin of the squares, 
by the side of the street, leaving the whole interior of them for 
gardens, parks, lawns, pleasure-grounds, and fields for cultiva- 
tion. 

Why was a large sjpace for cultivation icithin the walls con- 
sidered necessary f 

It was considered very important to have a large space of ground 
for cultivation inclosed within the walls of the city, so that, in 
case of its being besieged by an enemy, and of the siege being 
protracted beyond the time that the supplies of food would last, 
the people could raise food from this land, and thus maintain them- 
selves much longer against the danger of famine than would other- 
wise be possible. 



42 BABYLON. 

In what ivay did the river divide the city? How were the 
hanks of it defended ? 

The River Euphrates flowed through the city from north to 
south, and divided it into two equal parts. The walls of the city 
were continued along the banks of the river, with gates opposite 
to the streets, and steps to go down to the water. These inner 
walls were, of course, not so strong as the outer ones, for it was 
not supposed that any army could enter in that way except by 
coming up or down in boats on the river, and this, of course, would 
be an exceedingly difficult and dangerous operation. 

Describe the jpalaces and the gardens. 

Nebuchadnezzar built very magnificent palaces, too, in Babylon, 
and surrounded them with parks and gardens, all very beautifully 
laid out, and most splendidly adorned. But perhaps, after all, the 
most wonderful of all his structures was what was called the hang- 
ing gardens, though the structure might, perhaps, more properly 
have been called an artificial mountain. 

What were the circumstances lohich led Nehiichadnezzar to 
conceive the idea of the hanging gardens f 

His particular object in building this curious work was to please 
one of his wives, a young and beautiful princess named Amytis. 
She was a native of Media, which is quite a mountainous country, 
and when she came to reside at Babylon, though she was pleased 
with the extreme beauty and fertility of the plains which lay along 
the river, she complained of the monotony of them, and said she 
longed to see a hill. The celebrated hill called the hanging gar- 
dens was the result. 

Describe the gardens. 

The structure consisted of a series of platforms or terraces, sup- 
ported on arches of masonry, rising one above another, so high that 
the topmost one overlooked the walls of the city, which were said 
to be more than a hundred feet high. The several platforms were 
formed of immense flat blocks of stone, which were brought from 



BABYLON. 



43 










THE HANGING GARDENS. 



a great distance up the river for this express purpose. On these 
platforms was laid a very deep covering of garden mould, deep 
enough for the largest trees to grow in. These various platforms, 
thus covered, were laid out and cultivated as gardens, witli walks, 
parten-es of flowers, groups of trees and shrubbery, fountains, stat- 



44 BABYLON. 

ues and bowers, and with broad flights of steps leading up from one 
platform to the other. The structure must have presented some 
such an appearance as is represented in the preceding engraving. 

W/iat great jjower at length began to overshadoxo the Babylo- 
nian kingdom f 

The Babylonian empire rose to a very higli degree of grandeur 
and renown under the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, and its power con- 
tinued in a great degree unimpaired under Nebuchadnezzar's suc- 
cessors for many years. At length another great power, which 
had been for some time rising, farther to the northward, began 
gradually to overshadow it. This was the empire of the Medes 
and Persians. 

^Yhat king of the Medes and Persians laid siege to Babylon f 
Who was then king of Babylon f 

At length Cyrus, the king of that country, in the course of his 
conquests advanced toward Babylon, and laid siege to the city. 
This was during the reign of a king of Babylon named Nabona- 
dius — the same wlio in the Scriptures is called Belshazzar. He 
was a very effeminate and inefficient man, and he left the whole 
management of the government and the defense of his capital in 
the hands of his mother, the Queen Nitocris. 

Who ivas JVitocns, and what was her character? 

Nitocris was a woman of remarkable genius. She was, as it 
seems, quite distinguished in those times for her engineering and 
architectural plans. She had contrived, and caused to be executed, 
several grand designs for improving and beautifying the city. She 
caused to be constructed, for instance, an immense lake or reser- 
voir, to take oif the superfluous water in case of a flood, and thus 
prevent the land being devastated by inundation. She, too, had 
built the bridge which connected the two parts of the city across 
the Euphrates. Some time before she died, she caused her tomb 
to be built over one of the principal gates of the city, where it long 
remained a monument to her memory. 



BABYLON. 45 

IIow did NitocTis manage the war f 

Nitocris, being left by lier son Belshazzar in charge of the de- 
fense of the city against the invasion of Cyrus, dispkyed a most 
wonderful degree of courage and energy in carrying on the war. 
A great tattle was fought at first without the walls, but the Bab- 
ylonians were defeated and driven within the city, and were shut 
in by Cyrus, who then commenced a siege which lasted several 
years. 

What VMS the plan which Cyrus finally devised for getting 
into the city f 

At length Cyrus contrived a way of getting into the city, which 
has been celebrated in all ages of the world as one of the greatest 
strategic exploits in war that were ever performed. This plan 
was no less than that of diverting the Euphrates from its course, 
and then marching his army into the city along the old bed of the 
river. 

What ivas the first stejp in executing the 2)lan ? 

In executing this plan, Cyrus first employed a vast number of 
men to build dams across the river above the city, and to open 
channels to convey the waters off over the surrounding country, 
which was very low and level, and contained great numbers of old, 
deserted channels, and Avide tracts of low, swampy land to re- 
ceive it. 

What VMS the object of the gateways which he constructed in 
the neiD channels that were dug? 

In constructing these works, Cyrus made gateways in the sluices 
and dams, so as not to change the flowing of the water till all was 
ready, and he took great pains to conceal the operations from Bel- 
shazzar's armies within the city. 

Hoxo did Belshazzar act while these jyrejparations vjere going 
on? 

In the mean while, Belshazzar within the walls felt perfectly 
secure. The fortifications of the city, although they would have 



46 BABYLON. 

made but little resistance to the cannonading of modern warfare, 
were complete protection, he thought, to the battering-rams of Cy- 
rus's arm J, and he little knew what means the enemy was taking 
to effect an entrance. In this feeling of security he, with his no- 
bles devoted himself to the enjoyment of all the gayeties, luxu- 
ries, and festivities which his palaces and the resources of his city 
could furnish. 

What luere the final jpr&parations made by Cyrus for the ex- 
ecution of his jplan ? 

Cyrus meantime pushed forward the execution of the scheme by 
which he was to gain admittance unresisted into the besieged city. 
He stationed a very large detachment of troops at the opening in 
the wall where the river entered the city, and another at the other 
side of the city, at the opening where the river came forth. He 
then gave orders that, as soon as these forces should observe that 
the water of the river had subsided and disappeared, they should 
go down into the bed of the stream and march into the city. 

What wa^ the result f 

When all these preparations were ready, the proper orders were 
given, and the gates in the dams were shut, and those in the sluices 
opened at such a time in the evening as to cause the bed of tlie 
river within the city to be laid dry in the course of the night. The 
army of Cyrus then marched in over the sands, now bare, and then, 
going up the stairways, entered the city through the gateways in 
the river walls, which had been left comparatively unguarded. 

Hoio many columns entered the city f 

Thus the enemy came suddenly into the city, and marched 
without opposition to the very heart of it, one column coming 
from the north, and another from the south wall. 

What became of Belshazzar ? 

Belshazzar was found carousing with the nobles of his court in 
the royal palace, v/here he was put to death in the midst of the 
company. 



BABYLON. 



47 



'^^- 



VvJ 








CiRUsi ENTKKING BABYLON. 



W/iat book in the Scriptures contains an account of thest 
transactions f 

The book of Daniel, in the Bible, contains a very interesting 
narrative of the downfall of Belshazzar. 

What teas the condition of Babylonia after this conquest f 
From the time that Babylon was thus taken, the city itself, to- 
gether with the country pertaining to it, became a province of the 



48 EUINS OF NINEVEH AND BABYLON. 

great Medio-Persian empire. The people revolted from time to 
time, and endeavored to regain their independence, but they did 
not succeed. Babylon gradually declined in wealth and power, 
and at length all its mighty edifices went entirely to ruin. 

What became of the Jewish captives at this time f In lohai 
hooJcs do we find the history of their return, and of their efforts 
to 7'ebuilcl Jerusalem f 

Not long after the conquest of Babylon by Cyrus, the Jews 
were released from their captivity, and were allowed to return to 
their native land. Very interesting accounts of the difficulties 
which they encountered on their return, and of the labors, dangers, 
and sufferings which they incurred in rebuilding Jerusalem, are 
given in the Scriptures, in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. 



CHAPTER IV. 

RUINS OF NINEVEH AND BABYLON. 

What degree of reliance is 2ylctced at the present day in the ac- 
counts given of Nineveh and Bcdjylon by ancient writers? 

A great many of the marvelous tales that were related in an- 
cient times of the cities of Nineveh and Babylon are considered 
entirely fabulous at the present day, and it might even have been 
doubted whether such cities ever existed, were it not that the ruins 
and remains of them have recently been discovered and extensive- 
ly explored. The remains found among the ruins prove the truth 
of many of the ancient accounts. 

What loccs the general appearance of the ruins %ohen first ob- 
served ? 

These ruins remained concealed for more than a thousand years, 
none of them being visible above the surface of the gTOund. Noth- 
ing was to be seen, indeed, on the sites which they occupied but 
]ong grassy ridges and conical mounds, which, though very cu- 



RUINS OF NINEVEH AND BABYLON. 49 






MOUNDS. 

lious in tlieir form and appearance, presented nothing to the eye 
indicating their true character as ancient ruins. 

Why is it that these cities went so entirely to decay f 

These cities would probably not have gone so entirely to decav 
if they had been built of any solid material, such as granite or 
marble, for the pyramids, and many of the columns and temples 
in Egypt, which are of far greater age, remain standing to the pres- 
ent time. But the structures of Nineveh and Babylon, havino; 
been built chiefly of bricks made out of the mud dug out of the 
meadow lands, and hardened only by being dried in the sun, in 
the course of a few centuries went entirely to ruin, and the exterior 
surfaces of the heaps, being softened by rains, were gradually cov- 
ered with soil and vegetation, and so, in process of time, it was 
entirely forgotten that there had ever been any cities there. 

Who first exjplored the mounds, and tohat did they find? 

Within a few years, however, certain French and English trav- 
elers in the East undertook to dig into some of these mounds, and 
explore the contents of them. They found them full, in every 
part, of bricks, pottery, ruined walls, sculptures, fragments of arch- 
itectural ornaments, and other ancient relics and remains, which 
not only prove that these places were really the sites of ancient 
cities of vast extent and magnificence, but also furnish us with a 
great deal of curious information in respect to the customs, usages, 
and modes of life which prevailed in those ancient days. 

c 



50 



EUINS OF NINEVEH AND BABYLON. 



What was done icith the relics that loere discovered? 

A great many of these relics, containing inscriptions and picto- 
rial representations, which were found lining the walls of the pal- 
aces, have been taken out carefully and carried to England, where 
they have since been set up in the British Museum, in long rooms 
similar in form to those in which they were found, and where they 
may now be seen and examined by all the world. 

Describe the sculptures which loere discovered. 

Some of these sculptured pictures represent hunting scenes, and 
some battles and sieges, showing the forms of ancient weapons, 
and the modes of warfare practiced in those days. Others give 
us views of civil or military processions, or of scenes in domestic 
life. We can thus learn from them a great deal about the forms 
of the furniture, the utensils, and the arms used by the ancient 
Assyrians and Babylonians, and also gather much information in 
respect to their usages and modes of life. 

^Vhat weapons are rej^resented in the three figures shown f 

Here, for example, are three figures of warriors, showing the 
kinds of weapons and armor which were used in those days. 






RUINS OF NINEVEH AND BABYLON. 51 

What is the first loarriov^ and hoio is he armed f 

The general character of the dress in all these figures is the 
same, though the weapons are different. The archer has one of 
his arrows in his hand, and he holds his bow in the other. He 
has also at his side a quiver to put his spare arrows in. The 
quiver is made to hold his bow likewise. 

What is the second ivarrior, and hoio is he armed f 

The second is a spearman. He wears a crested helmet on his 
head, and he holds a large round shield on his left arm. His legs 
are protected by chain-mail. 

What is the third ioa7'rio7\ and in tohat jposition is he repre- 
sented f 

The third warrior is a slinger. He has just thrown a stone. 
He holds another in his hand ready to put into the sling, and he 
has, moreover, a small pile of stones at his feet. All three of the 
warriors have swords by their sides, in addition to their own ap- 
propriate Aveapons. 

Describe the group representing the ceremony of writing dow7i 
the mimber of the slain after a battle. 

Many of the sculptures on these slabs represent groups of men 
performing certain acts, by means of which we obtain an insight 
into several of the customs of these ancient nations. On the fol- 
lowing page, for example, is one representing the mode by which, 
after a battle, the victors were accustomed to reckon up the slain. 
The soldiers are bringing in the heads of their enemies and throw- 
ing them together in a heap, in the presence of two officers appoint- 
ed to keep the reckoning. One of these officers is counting the 
heads, and the other is writing the number down. 

I?i ichat respect do the figures in this group correspond loith 
the others f 

The dresses of these men are similar to those of the other fig- 
ures. They are archers, and their bows, being not in use, are 
placed in the quivers. 



52 



EUINS OF NINEYEH AND BABYLON. 




WRITING DOWN THE NUMBER OF THE SLAIN. 



Describe the group rejyreseiitiiig men attaching a city. 

On the opposite page is a sculpture representing soldiers ad- 
vancing to the attack of a besieged city. The two foremost arc 
armed with shields and spears. The shields are to defend them 
from the arrows which the enemy shoot at them from the walls of 
the city. Two such arrows have been already intercepted, and 
we see them sticking in one of the shields. The men are crouch- 
ing down and kneeling as they advance, so that their bodies may 
be more perfectly covered and protected by the shields. 

What is the arrangement for protecting the archers? 

The two other men are armed in quite a different manner. One 
of them is an archer, and is armed with a bow and arrow, while 
the other one supports a large shield before him to protect him. 
A spearman can hold his own shield, for it requires only one hand 
to throw a spear; but for a bow and arrow both hands are re- 
quired. 

Describe the shield used to 2)rotect the archers. 

The shield is very large : the lower end of it rests on the ground, 



RUINS OF NINEVEH AND BABYLON. 



53 




ADVANCING TO THE ATTACK. 



SO that all the shield-hearer has to do is to keep it in an upright 
position, and also to move it forward from time to time as the 
archer advances. This he does by means of a handle which we 
oce attached to the inner side of the shield. 

What is the form of the top of it f 

The top of the shield is bent over, so as to protect the faces of 
the men standing behind it. 

What else does the shield-bearer carry besides the shield? 

The shield-bearer, besides his shield, is armed with a spear. 
He manages the shield with one hand, and the spear with the 
other. 'The two spearmen in front wear the same kind of crested 
helmet that we saw on the head of the spearman in the single fig- 
ure on a previous page, and the archer and his shield-bearer wear 
pointed ones, like that of the slinger. 

What custom prevailed in those days in respect to fighting in 
pairs f 

It seems to have been very much the custom in those days for 
soldiers to fight together in pairs, like this archer and shield-bearer, 
and to conduct various other operations in the same manner where 
more than one pair of hands was required. Sometimes even there 



54 



EUINS OF NINEVEH AND BABYLON. 



are three, as, for example, in the chariots of war, where there arc 
usually represented three men standing up together, one to drive, 
one to hold a shield, and a third, the warrior, who is armed for the 
fight. We should have supposed that three men standing thus 
together in one small chariot, each having a different function from 
the rest to perform, would have been very much in each other's 
way ; but it seems that, by careful training to tlie duty, they ac- 
quired so much skill in it as to act together as if they formed but 
one man — a sort of six-legged and six-handed man. 

Describe the sculjpture representing two men fighting as aj^cii'i" 
on horseback. 

Here is another sculpture which affords a very remarkable ex- 




THE COMPOUND HORSEMAN. 



ample of these complex animals. It consists of two horses, ridden 
by two men, one to drive both horses, and the other to fight with 
a bow and arrow. You can see that the left-hand horseman holds 
the reins of both horses, so that the other rider may have both 



EUINS OF NINEVEH AND BABYLON. 55 

hands free for liis bow and arrows. He has a quiver, and we can 
see the ends of the spare arrows projectmg out of it a little way 
at the top. 

W/iat sort of boats are rejpresented on these sculjptures f 
The boats that are represented in these ancient sculptures are 
very curious. It seems that the original mode of making boats 
on these rivers was to take the hide of an ox, or some similar an- 
imal, and stretch it over a frame of osiers. The form of such a 
craft would, of course, be very peculiar — short and broad, and 
more like an oval bowl than a boat. Besides these boats, the men 
were accustomed to swim across the rivers by means of the skins 
of smaller animals, which they inflated for this purpose, and placed 
under them to buoy them up, as a boy would do with a bladder. 
Describe the sculpture representing the crossing of a river. 
Here is a sculpture showing these things very plainly. The 




CROSSING A RIVE 



waving lines which form the groundwork of the picture represent 
water. In one place we see a fish swimming in it. There are a 
great many such water-pieces as this in the different sculptures. 
The boat goes first, transporting a war chariot. We can see the 
wheel, and the other parts of the chariot in the boat. Two men, 
denoting soldiers of the army, are following, swimming on inflated 
skins. The man who is steering the boat is looking back to see 
how the swimmers get along. There are two other men rowing. 
We know that the articles in the boat are the parts of a war char- 
iot, because in many of the other sculptures we have full repre- 



56 



RUINS OF NINEVEH AND BABYLON. 



sentations of these chariots going into battle, and the parts are the 
same as are represented here. In one sculpture, indeed, there is a 
representation of people on the bank of the stream taking a chariot 
to pieces, in order to put it into a boat, while other persons stand- 
ing by are blowing up their skins in order to get ready to swim. 

WAat is the action rei^resented in the sculpture of the war 
chariot f 

Here is a representation of one of tlie chariots complete. Ob- 




WAR CHARIOT. 



serve the peculiar structure of it, and the style of the harness. 
By comparing the several parts of this chariot with those in the 
boat, you will see that they are the same. 

Describe the forvi of the chariot and the action of the inen. 

The wheels of the chariot, you perceive, are massive, though 
low, and the body is small. There is just room enough for two 
men to stand. One holds the reins of the horses, while the other 
is armed with a bow and arrow. He is just shooting the arrow. 
Beneath the horses lies a wounded enemy. His attitude denotes 
that he is in pain. His bow and his quiver lie by his side. 



KUINS OF NINEVEH AND BABYLON. 



57 



There are two quivers full of arrows by the side of the chariot. 
There is also a spear ready to be seized at any moment when it 
is required. The bird flying above the horses represents a vul- 
ture flying toward the battle-iield to devour the slain. 
TIoio are the horses capariso7ieclf 

The horses are gorgeously caparisoned, their trappings being 

adorned with tassels, and rosettes, 
and other similar embellishments. 
It is so with almost all the horses 
that are represented in these sculp- 
tures. Observe, for example, how 
splendidly this horse's head is 
adorned. 

There seems to have been an es- 
tablished fashion in respect to all 
these things, for on all the sculp- 
tures the devices of the dress and 
equipage are very nearly the same. 
By what means have these ancient relics been brought to light? 
Travelers from England and France, visiting the ruins of Bab- 
ylon and Nineveh, have made vast excavations in the mounds, 
with the assistance of the Arab natives, and have brought to light 
these relics. 

We7'e the Arab riatives who lived near these moimcls acguaint- 
ecl vnth what they contained ? 

The country bordering on the rivers Tigris and Euphrates is 
inhabited by Arabs, a wild and half-civilized people, who live in 
villages of huts which they have built along the banks of the riv- 
ers, and sometimes on the slopes of the mounds. They have no 
idea whatever of the history, or even of the existence of the an- 
cient cities whose ruins lie buried under their soil. When the 
English and French travelers began to dig into the mounds, they 
supposed that they were searching for hidden treasures, and noth - 

C2 




HEAD-DKESS OF A HORSE. 



58 



RUINS OF NINEVEH AND BABYLON. 



ing could exceed the amazement which they manifested as they 
stood around the excavations and gazed on the prodigious sculp- 




ASTONISHMENT OF THE NATIVES. 

tures, and the curious utensils and relics that were brought to 
light. 

W/iat degree of civilization do these sculptures indicate in the 
Assyrians and Babylonians ? 

It is very plain, from these sculptures, that the ancient Assyri- 
ans and Babylonians were quite a cultivated people, and had made 
great progress in many of the arts and refinements of life. 



FOUNDATION OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 59 



CHAPTER V. 

X FOUNDATION OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 

Describe the situation of Media and Persia, W/io laid the 
first foundations of the Persian empire? 

To the eastward of the great river valleys watered by the Ti- 
gris and Euphrates — the region of the cities of Nineveh and Bab- 
ylon—are the two countries of Media and Persia — ]\Iedia on the 
north, and Persia on the south. During the period while Nineveh 
and Babylon were flourishing, these countries, too, were gradually 
increasing in wealth and power, until at length they entirely over- 
powered those earlier dominions. The great conqueror in whom 
the power of the Medes and Persians was first combined was Cy- 
rus, and he subsequently extended his command over all that 
part of Assyria, thus laying the foundation of the great Persian 
empire. 

What is thought at the present day of the accounts given of 
Cymes by the ancient historians f Why are these accounts deem- 
ed incredible f 

This Cyrus was one of the greatest and most renowned con- 
querors of ancient time. He lived, however, at so early a period, 
that no authentic and regular accounts of his history were written 
at the time, and the world was, accordingly, filled for some hund- 
reds of years after his death with the most romantic and marvel- 
ous tales respecting him. We can not possibly believe these sto- 
ries, even if we were to wish to believe them ; for, besides being so 
marvelous, they are, many of them, inconsistent with each other. 
It is well, however, to know what some of these stories were. 

What was the parentage of Cyrus f 

A remarkable tale is told of a very narrow escape from destruc- 
tion in his infancy. He was born in Media, and was the son of 



60 FOUNDATION OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 

Mandane, wlio was a princess of that country, her father being the 
king. The king's name was Astyages. 

Describe the occurrence which led Astyages to feel alarm in 
respect to his daughter. 

One night, at the time when Mandane was living at home with 
her father as a young maiden, Astyages had a dream concerning 
her which frightened him. Kings in those days, who governed, 
not by any just right, but by despotic and arbitrary power, were 
always ready to take alarm in respect to the tenure of their sway, 
and Astyages imagined that his dream denoted that his daughter 
would in some way or other be the means of dethroning him. 
"Ah!" said he to himself, "she will marry some warlike prince, 
and will rebel against me and take away my crown." 

What measures did Astyages adoj^t to avert the danger ? 
Whom did he choose as a husband for Mandane ? 

In order to prevent this calamity, the king began to look about 
for some husband for Mandane who was of so gentle and quiet a 
disposition that there should be no danger of his cherishing any 
such ambitious designs. He made choice of Cambyses, the prince 
or governor of Persia, which country seems to have been at that 
time, in some sense, a dependency of Media. So Mandane was 
married to him, and soon after she went to Persia with her hus- 
band. 

In what way tvas the alar?n of Astyages renewed f 

By-and-by Astyages had another dream, which led him to sup- 
pose that the danger which he had to fear from Mandane would 
come from her son, and not from her husband. This frightened 
him more than ever, and he sent for Mandane to come home, in 
order that he might kill her child as soon as it was born. 
What measures did he now adopt ? 

Accordingly, as soon as the child was born, he gave it to one 
of his officers named Harpagus, with orders that he should kill it. 
He was very unwilling to kill the child himself, and so he gave it 



FOUNDATION OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 



61 



to a herdsman, directing him to carry it out into the woods, and 
leave it there till it was dead, and then to bring the body home. 

Describe the situation of the herdsmmi's famtly at this time. 
What became of Cyrus f 

Now it happened that the herdsman's wife had a child at this 
time that was dead, and the body was lying in the hut when her 
husband brought little Cyrus home. So she concluded to make 
an exchange. She kept Cyrus alive, and carried her own child 
out into the woods, intending to leave it there a few days, and 
then to take the body to Harpagus and pretend it was that of 
Mandane's child. While the body was lying in the woods, a 
man was stationed near to watch it, and drive off the beasts and 
birds of prey. 




THE HERDSMAN S INFANT. 



In due time they carried the body back to their hut, and Har- 



62 FOUNDATION OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 

pagus came to see it. He then went to the king and told him 
that Mandane's child was dead. He was perfectly sure of it, he 
said, for he had seen the body. 

W/ie?i at length these things were discovered by the Mng, icas 
he pleased or displeased that Cyrus tvas saved f What return 
did he make to Harpagus f 

Several years elapsed before it was discovered by the king that 
Cyrus was alive. He had then become a tall and handsome boy, 
and the king, when he accidentally discovered him, was very much 
pleased, though he was dreadfully enraged with Harpagus for 
having failed to obey his command to kill him. He punished 
Harpagus by killing his son in the most cruel and horrid manner. 
Harpagus made no open complaint, but he secretly resolved to be 
avenged. 

Where and how was Cyrus brought up ? 

Cyrus was sent to Persia to his mother, and was brought up 
there. Here he was educated in a very thorough and careful man- 
ner, according to the customs and modes of education adopted in 
those days. He was taught to wrestle, to run, and to perform 
various other atliletic exercises. He was practiced also in the use 
of arms and armor employed in those days — the spear, the javelin, 
the bow and arrow, the shield and the sword. He was often 
taken out into the forests, too, with the other young men of the 
court, to practice what he had learned in hunting Avild beasts. 

What ivas his character t7i his youth f 

Cyrus became a great favorite while he lived in Persia with his 
mother, on account of the amiableness and gentleness of his man- 
ners, and the kind and open-hearted honesty which he manifested 
in all his actions. ' In a word, he was a general favorite among all 
who knew him. 

When did he return to Media f 

When he was about twelve years old, he went to make a visit 
to his grandfather in Media, and remained there several years. 



FOUNDATION OF THE PERSIAN EJIPIRE. 



63 



How did he appear there, and hoio tvas he regarded? 

Here he attracted much attention, and made himself a still great- 
er favorite than he had been at his father's court in Persia. He 
surpassed all the young men of the court in strength, in agility, 
in manly courage, and in the high moral and intellectual qualities 
which he manifested in all his intercourse with those around him. 

Describe the adventure that he met ivith in hunting. 

The following engraving represents an incident that occurred 
in hunting, that strongly illustrated the ardor and impetuosity of 
his character. The hunting party, while hunting a stag, came to 
a dreadful chasm, and all except Cyrus reined up their horses in- 
stinctively upon the brink of it ; but he drove on, and went over 



'^fii.. 




CYRUS'S HUNTINC; 



it, though at the imminent risk of his life. On gaining the farther 
side of the chasm, he pressed on, overtook the stag, and killed him 
with his javelin. 



64 FOUNDATION OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 

What ims the character of Cyrus when he became a man? 
Who first conceived the idea of mahing Mm king? 

At length Cyrus returned to Persia, and there, in process of 
years, grew up to be a man, and, as might have been expected, 
from the energy and impetuosity of character which he had mani- 
fested as a youth, an aspiring and ambitious man ; and in process 
of time, Harpagus, who had not forgotten his vows of vengeance 
against Astyages, began to form plans to raise a rebellion, and, 
after dethroning Astyages, to make Cyrus king of ]Media and Per- 
sia in his place. 

What was the result of these plans f 

He communicated this plan to Cyrus, and Cyrus, after some 
hesitation and delay, concluded to accede to it. He raised an 
army in Persia, and marched into IMedia. Harpagus joined him, 
and the revolution was effected. Astyages was deposed, and Cy- 
rus ascended the throne as King of the Medes and Persians. 

Describe the first military exj^tedition lohich Cymes undertook. 

As soon as he had well established himself in power, he began 
to think of enlarging his dominions, and one of the first expedi- 
tions which he undertook was the invasion of the territories of 
Croesus, king of Lydia. You will see the situation of Lydia, and 
the route which Cyrus took in marching into it with liis army, by 
looking at the opposite map. 

Who was Croesus, and for ichat was he chiefly renownedf 

Croesus was immensely rich. He obtained his riches from the 
gold which was found abundantly in one of the rivers in his do- 
minions. The common proverb, "as rich as Croesus," refers to 
him. Sardis was the capital of his dominions, and the River Ha- 
lys was tlie eastern boundary of it. The capital of Cyrus, in Me- 
dia, was Ecbatana. The situation of all those places can be seen 
upon the map. 

Describe the situation and extent of Croesiiis dominions. 

Croesus was not only very rich, but he was also very powerful, 



FOUNDATION OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 



65 





I "y^ V '^' H- 



F?^€l|!t^! 



^%is, 













^ \( 




^-'Jl 



EXPEDITION OF CYRUS. 



and lie liad himself been extending liis conquests very far and 
wide beyond the boundaries of his native kingdom of Lydia when 
C}Tus went to meet him. 

What was the result of Cyrus's invasion of Lydia f 

Cyrus was successful in his invasion. He defeated Croesus's 
armies in the field, and then besieged and conquered Sardis, the 
capital, and finally took Croesus himself prisoner, and carried him 
away captive. He, however, allowed him a great deal of liberty, 
and treated him always with the utmost kindness and consideration. 

What other great military exj)edition did Cyrus undertake f 
Houj did it succeed f 

Cyrus acquired great renown from the success of this expedi- 
tion to Lydia, and not very long after his return he marched into 
Babylonia and laid siege to Babylon, as was related in a preceding 
chapter. Here he was successful too, and thus the boundaries of 
his empire were still more enlarged. Thus he went on from one 

E 



66 FOUNDATION OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 

conquest to another, until at length almost the whole of Asia, so 
far as it was then known to the world, was under his sway. 
What new jplans did he 71010 form f 

One might have supposed that he would now be content, but 
the ambition of these great conquerors is insatiable, and at length, 
after the lapse of many years, among his other plans, he con- 
ceived the desire to conquer the Scythian country, which lay be- 
yond the River Araxes, which you may see on the map to the 
north of Media. 

Who iDCis the queen of the Scythians at this time f What was 
her proposal to Cyrus tchen he reached her frontiers f 

The sovereign of this country was a queen named Tomyris. 
Cyrus, after some fruitless negotiations, advanced to the Araxes, 
and was planning how he should cross it, when Tomyris sent him 
word that she did not fear him, and that he need not trouble him- 
self to devise any ingenious way of getting across the river, for she 
was willing to allow him to cross without resistance. She would 
retire three days' march from the river, she said, if he wished, and 
let him come into her dominions without opposing him ; or, if he 
would retire three days' march from the river, she would come into 
his dominions, and fight him there. 

Which of the alternatives did Cyrus choose? What luas the 
residt f 

Cyrus chose the former, and so he crossed the river and march- 
ed into Scythia. Tomyris met him, and a battle was fought. 
First Cyrus's soldiers seized Tomyris's son, and he, in his anguish 
and despair at having been made a captive, killed himself. 

Describe the circumstances of Cyruses death. 

Afterward a greater Scythian force came up, and another battle 
was fought, in which Cyras himself was killed. Tomyris was so 
exasperated with him for coming to invade her dominions, and for 
having caused the death of her son, that she cut off his head and 
plunged it into a bucket filled Avith the blood of Persians, saying 



THE STATES OF GREECE. 67 

as she did so, *' There I bloodthirsty wretch! you can there drink 
as much blood as you will." Thus the mighty conqueror came 
to a miserable end. 

W/io succeeded Cyrus f 

After the death of Cyrus the army left Scythia and went home, 
and the immense empire which he had established fell into the 
hands of Cambyses, his son and successor. 

At ichat time did Cyrus live? 

The time when Cyrus lived was between five and six hundred 
years before Christ. He commenced his reign in the year 559 
B.C. This is almost the first date in ancient history that is con- 
sidered as certainly known. 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE STATES OF GREECE. 

When the Persian empire had extended itself to the confines 
'>f J^uro2)e^ vjhat group of states did it find rising to jpoioer and 
ready to ojpp)Ose it there ? 

During the time while these three Asiatic empires — the As- 
syrian, the Babylonian, and the Persian — had been successively 
rising to power, and each falling again to make way for the next, 
a great many other states and kingdoms had been gradually grow- 
ing up in different parts of the world. Among them were the 
States of Greece ; and when, at length, the Persian empire had 
extended itself so as to include all the western part of Asia, it 
began to come into collision with these states of Greece, and a se- 
ries of dreadful wars arose between those two great powers, which 
continued for hundreds of years. Before beginning to narrate the 
history of these wars, I must go back, and give some account of 
the origin of the different states and kingdoms of Greece, and of 
the character of the people. 



68 



THE STATES OF GREECE. 



Describe the situation of the States of Greece. What waters 
separated these countries from the Persian dominions f 

The territories of Greece were situated in Europe, near the con- 
lines of Asia. They were 
separated from Asia, as ap- 
pears in the map, by the 
^gean Sea and the Sea of 
Marmora, andby the straits 
connecting the Sea of Mar- 
mora with the Black Sea 
on the north and the ^ge- 
an Sea on the south. It 
is necessary to observe this 
particularly, for in the wars 
that took place between the 
Greeks and the Persians, 
one of the greatest difficul- 
ties and dangers which the 
armies encountered in the 
outset was the getting over 
this water. They usually crossed at the narrow strait which lies 
between the JEgean Sea and the Sea of Marmora, which was called 
in those days the Hellespont. 

Describe the face of the country. What was the character of 
f he people F 

The country of the Greeks was farther to the north than that 
of the Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians, and, instead of con- 
sisting of smooth and level plains, it was very rugged and mount- 
ainous, and the character of the people, in consequence of this very 
fact, perhaps, was quite different from that of the inhabitants of 
the river valleys of Asia. They were more hardy, more intellect- 
ual, more active and energetic, and far more capable of enduring 
fatigue, privations, and suffering. 




STATES OF GREECE. 



THE STATES OF GREECE. 69 

Describe the system of goverfimeiit that they adoj)ted. 

They loved liberty too, and wished to manage their own public 
business themselves, instead of giving themselves up, as the Asi- 
atic nations were always ready to do, to the arbitrary sway of a 
despotic sovereign. Thus, instead of one great kingdom or em- 
pire, the people of Greece formed themselves into a great many 
separate republics and states, in which the people themselves, in 
assemblies which they held for this purpose, regulated and con- 
trolled the government. They often had kings, indeed, but then 
they kept these kings under a strict responsibility, and, when they 
overstepped or abused their power, they rose against them, and 
deposed, and sometimes killed them. Indeed, they were, in all 
essential respects, republics rather than kingdoms. 

Which were the two tnost proiainent states? I'hr vjhat is 
Macedon celebrated? 

The two most prominent and important of the states of Greece 
were Athens and Sparta. Besides these, there were two other 
kingdoms, situated to the northward of Greece proper, that subse- 
quently acquired great renown — namely, Epirus and j\Iacedon. 
Macedon became celebrated through Alexander the Great, who 
was king of that country, and who acquired great fame, both for 
himself and his native land, by his conquests eastward in Asia. 
Epirus owed its fame, in the same manner, to Pyrrlms, one of its 
kings, who was also a great conqueror, though the course of his 
expeditions was turned westward into Italy and other parts of 
Europe. We shall come to the history of these heroes by-and-by. 
All that is necessary now is that you should notice the position 
of these countries on the map, a little north of the great Grecian 
peninsula. 

Describe the cities of Athens and Sparta. 

The city of Athens was on a neck of land called the Pelopon- 
nesus, just north of the entrance to the Peloponnesus, while Sparta 
was situated within the peninsula. They were both populous and 



70 



THE STATES OF GREECE. 



powerful cities, and they exercised a great influence and control 
over all the other states of Greece. They were rivals to each 
other, and often enemies, especially when there was no foreign foe 
to contend with. 

What was the situation of Athe7is f 

Athens was one of the most beautiful cities in the world. It 
was built at the foot of a steep, rocky hill. The summit of this 




VIEW OF ATHENS. 



hill was strongly fortified, and was called the Acropolis or Citadel- 
and there were many temples and monuments upon it, all mag- 
nificently adorned. 

For what qualities were the Athenians celebrated f 
The Athenians were celebrated for their wealth and refinement, 
and for their exquisite skill in music, painting, and sculpture. 
They were great scholars too, and the fame of their science and 



THE STATES OF GREECE. 71 

philosophy was renowned throughout the world. They had learn- 
ed the art of writing, and poets and historians arose among them 
whose works were very much admired. These books, of course, 
could not be printed, for the art of printing was not known in those 
days ; so the authors were accustomed to read them aloud, at the 
great assemblies of the people that were convened from time to 
time for games and celebrations. 

Desmhe the charactei^istics of the peojde of S2xcrta, 

The Spartans were a very different people from the Athenians 
and the other Greeks. They affected to despise wealth, and to 
contemn luxury and refinement in all its forms. They prided 
themselves on their fortitude, their energy, and their indomitable 
powers of endurance. They trained up their children to endure 
hardships, to despise pain, and to be utterly reckless of danger. 
They considered the Athenians as effeminate, ostentatious, and 
vain ; while the Athenians considered them, on the other hand, as 
rude, rough, and little better than savages. They laughed at the 
Spartans' iron money and black broth, and insisted that, to possess 
courage, strength, and fortitude, it was by no means necessary that 
men should make themselves barbarians. 

Describe the general situatmi of the rest of the country. 

Besides Athens and Sparta, there were other cities and king- 
doms in Greece, which were sometimes independent of each other, 
and sometimes were confederated together in groups and combi- 
nations, which were continually changing. The country was in- 
expressibly beautiful, the landscape being varied every where by 
a succession of blue mountains, fertile valleys, and picturesque 
shores where deep and tranquil bays alternated with bold head- 
lands and promontories, and by large and fertile islands, scattered 
every where over the surface of the surrounding seas. 

In ivhat resjyect did the architecture of the Greeks differ from 
that of the Asiatic nations? 

The buildings which the Greeks constructed were flir more en- 



72 DAEIUS AND THE FIRST INVASION OF GREECE. 

during than those of the Asiatic nations, for they were made of 
marble instead of mud bricks. The remains of them continue to 
the present day. They are all in a state of great dilapitation and 
decay, it is true, but many of them still retain such a degree of 
preservation that the original form and proportions of them can be 
plainly seen, and they are considered to this day as the most per- 
fect models of architectural beauty that the world has ever pro- 
duced. 

At loliat time did these states of Greece come first into collision 
with the Persian emjAre f 

It was with these states of Greece that the great Persian em- 
pire came into collision, in the period immediately succeeding the 
lirst establishment of it by the conquests of Cyrus the Grreat. 



CHAPTER VII. 

DARIUS AND THE FIRST INVASION OF GREECE. 

Who succeeded Cyrus as king of Persia ? 

At the death of Cyrus, the government of the Persian empire 
devolved upon Cambyses, Cyrus's eldest son. 

What was the character of Cambyses ? 

He was a monster of despotism and cruelty. He commenced 
his career by an invasion of Egypt, and there, after a great variety 
of disasters, he was at length killed. He had a brother named 
Smerdis, but this Smerdis had been assassinated by Cambyses's 
orders, so that when Cambyses himself was dead, there was no 
one to succeed to the throne. 

Who teas /Smerdis the Magian^ and what ambitious design 
did he form f 

There was another Smerdis — a Magian — among the officers of 
Cambyses's court, and he resolved to take the command of the em- 
pire, and pretend that he was Cyrus's son. His name was the 



DARIUS AND THE FIRST INVASION OF GREECE. 73 

same, and then, besides, lie looked like the true Smerdis. There 
was another thing that favored the deception, and that was that it 
was not generally known that the true Smerdis was killed, for 
Cambyses had ordered the assassination to be perpetrated secretly. 

Did Smerdis succeed in his atteinpt f How did he attemjpt to 
prevent the jyeojyle from discovering the imposture f 

Smerdis the IMagian succeeded in making the people think that 
he was the true prince, and he governed the country for some time 
without any opposition. He kept himself all the time closely shut 
up in his palace, allowing no one but his own family and servants 
to see him, for fear that something might happen by which the 
people might find him out. 

What danger did he most fear? 

The thing that he was particularly afraid of was lest some one 
should see his ears. It seems that Cambyses, some years before 
this time, had ordered his ears to be cut off in a fit of anger against 
him, and Smerdis was noAV very much afraid that he might be 
discovered by means of this indelible disfigurement ; so he kept 
himself closely shut up, and also covered his ears carefully with 
his hair. 

Describe the scheme which the nobles formed for discovering 
the truth. 

In process of time, however, some of the nobles began to sus- 
pect him, and finally they laid a plot to induce one of his wives, 
named Pha3dyma, who was a daughter of one of the leading con- 
spirators, to go to him when he was asleep and feel for his ears. 
It was Pha3dyma's father that proposed to her to do this. At 
first Pha3dyma was afraid. She said that she should not dare to 
do such a thing. But her father urged her, saying that, if Smerdis 
was really an impostor, the deception ought to be made known. 

Phaidyma at last consented to do as her father desired, though 
she knew that she hazarded her life in the attempt. " If he has 
no ears," said she, "and if I awaken him in attempting to feel 



^4 DARIUS AND THE FIRST INVASION OF GREECE. 

for them, I am sure that he will kill me. He will kill me on the 
spot." 




PHitDYMA AND SMERDIJ 



HoiD did the j^lcin succeed f 

Pha^dyma examined and found tliat the cars were gone. The 
conspirators, when they learned this, matured the plot. Darius 
was the leader of them. They broke into the palace and killed 
the impostor Smerdis, and then, organizing a new government, 
they put Darius at the head of it. 

Who was the leader in this revolution., and hy lohat name 
was he afterward hnoimi iii history? 

This was Darius the Great. He is so called partly on account 
of the splendor and magnificence of his reign, and partly to dis- 
tinguish him from another Darius, who was king of Persia at a 
subsequent time. 



DARIUS AND THE FIRST INVASION OF GREECE. 75 

What great design did Darius conceive in respect to Greece f 

It was in the reign of Darius the Great that the first great con- 
test took place between the Persians and the Greeks. Darius 
himself was the aggressor. He conceived the plan of an invasion 
of Greece, intending to conquer the whole country and annex it to 
the Persian dominions. The idea of undertaking this great enter- 
prise was first suggested to him by a Greek physician named De- 
mocedes, who was at that time a captive in Susa, which was then 
the capital of the Persian empire. 

, llelate the circumstances which led to the first acquaintance 
between Democedes and Darius. 

The way in which Darius came to know Democedes was this. 
One day, when he was riding furiously in the woods, in hunting, 
he fell from his horse and hurt his ankle. All tlie physicians of 
the court tried to cure it, but they only made it worse. At length 
somebody informed Darius that there was a Greek captive in the 
city who w^as very skillful as a physician, and so Darius sent for 
him. Democedes soon cured the ankle, and subsequently became 
a great favorite of the king. 

What resulted from this acquaintance ? 

Democedes gave Darius a great deal of information about Greece, 
and at length contrived to interest him in the plan of invading that 
country. His proposal was that Darius should first send out a se- 
cret expedition to explore it, and bring back an account of its re- 
sources, its geographical situation, and such other information as 
would be necessary for the proper conducting of the campaign. 

What was the secret motive of Democedes i7i making this 2^'i"0- 
jposal f 

Democedes was very cunning in forming this plan. His motive 
was to make the scheme a means of affording him an opportunity 
to return to his native land. 

"For," said he to himself, " if the king sends a reconnoitering 
party to explore the country, he will, of course, send me as a guide 



76 DARIUS AND THE FIRST INVASION OF GREECE. 

to them, and then, when I once get to Greece, I will take good 
care not to come back again." 

How did the exjyedition of Democedes end ? 

This cunning contrivance was very successful. Darius sent 
the expedition and directed Democedes to go with it as guide. 
Democedes went, and he pretended to be very much interested in 
the object of the mission until he got into Greece, but then he 
made his escape from the party and left them to take care of them- 
selves. After meeting with a great variety of adventures and 
narrow escapes, and being finally reduced to a state of great des- 
titution and distress, they made their way back again to Darius, 
and reported all that they had learned. 

For what cause teas the invasion of Greece for a time delayed? 

Darius resolved to put his plan of the invasion into execution, 
though he was obliged to postpone it for some time on account of 
other wars in wliich he was then engaged in Asia, and of rebellions 
that had broken out in his dominions, atid which, of course, it was 
necessary first to suppress. At length, when all his other enemies 
were subdued, he began to organize his grand expedition into 
Greece. 

Describe the arrangeine7its which Darius fincdly tnade for the 
invasion of Greece. 

He assembled an immense armament, and put it under the com- 
mand of one of his generals named Datis. He also ordered a large 
fleet of ships, galleys, and transports of all kinds to be collected 
together at Cilicia, which was the nearest point on the Mediterra- 
nean Sea. His plan was to march his troops to that point by land, 
and then to convey them the rest of the way over the sea, by 
means of this fleet. 

What course did the expedition take in advancing into the 
Grecian territories f 

The plan above described was carried into effect. The troops 
marched to Cilicia and there embarked on board the fleet. The 



DARIUS AND THE FIRST INVASION OF GREECE. 77 

fleet soon afterward set sail. It advanced along the southern 
shores of Asia Minor, and tlicn turned to the northward into the 
iEgean Sea. As the fleet moved slowly on, the commanders 
stopped from time to time to take possession of such islands as 
came in their way. The people on the other islands assembled 
upon the heights to watch the progress of this immense armament 
as it moved majestically along. It was supposed to be the great- 
est fleet which at that period of the world had ever been assembled. 

What effect teas produced in Athens hy the approach of the 
fleet ? Whei'e did the Persian expedition land f 

The people of Athens were in the greatest consternation, for the 
fleet w^as advancing directly toward that city. They had sent to 
Sparta and to other parts of Greece for aid, but no force could be 
assembled in sufiicient season to prevent the landing of the troops. 
The fleet advanced up the channel betw^een the island of Euboea 
and the main land, which you will see upon the map,* and there 
were brought into port near ^larathon, which was not very far 
from Athens, and the troops were safely landed. There were 
about a hundred thousand men. 

What ivas the comparative strength of the two armies f 

The Greeks, on the other hand, when their forces were all as- 
sembled, were found to consist of only ten thousand, and the gen- 
erals were in great doubt and perplexity what to do. Some were 
in favor of shutting themselves up in the city, and defending them- 
selves as weU as they could there ; but one of them, named Miltia- 
des, was strongly in favor of going out to attack the enemy on the 
plains of Marathon, where they were encamped. 

What icas the proposal made hy the Greek general ? 

"If the ten thousand men will follow me," said he, "we will 
break through the hundred thousand Persians, and drive them into 
the sea." 

* For the situation of the .Egean vSea, and of the countries here referred to, set^ 
the map on page 82, or refer to any ancient Atlas. 



^8 XERXES AND THE SECOND INVASION OF GREECE. 

Was this proposal accepted? Describe the battle that took 
place, and the result of it. 

The Greeks acceded to this proposal. They marched out un- 
der the command of Miltiades, and advanced toward the plains of 
Marathon, where the Persians were encamped. The Persians 
\vere astonished to see them coming. They could not think it 
possible that so small a force "svould dare to attack the immense 
host that was arrayed against them. The Greeks, however, came 
on with headlong impetuosity, bearing down all opposition, and 
cutting their Avay into and through the ranks of the enemy with 
a fury that nothing could withstand. The Persians, in various 
parts of the field, continued for some hours to struggle against 
them, but they were finally beaten in every part and driven off, 
some into the surrounding fens and morasses, and others into the 
sea. A small portion of the force succeeded in regaining the ships 
and galleys, and, after encountering great hardships and suffering, 
made their way back again to Persia. 

What is the name of this battle f 

This was the great and celebrated battle of Marathon. It was 
the end of the first Persian invasion of Greece. 

What other expedition against Greece did Darius form? 

After this, Darius formed another plan for the invasion of Greece, 
intending to put his son Xerxes in command of the expedition, 
but he died before the time arrived for the expedition to set out, 
and Xerxes, his son, reigned in his stead. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

XERXES AND THE SECOND INVASION OF GREECE. 

What step did Xerxes take after his accession i?i respect to 
Greece f 
As soon as Xerxes had succeeded to the throne, and had set- 



XERXES AND THE SECOND INVASION OF GREECE. 79 

tied the affairs that required his immediate attention in Persia, he 
held a grand consultation of his officers and generals to consider 
whether he should go on with the expedition which his father had 
planned for the invasion of Greece. 

IIoio did he propose to vary I) arms' s plan f 

He said that if he should decide to undertake the enterprise, he 
should not attempt to convey his troops in ships by sea as his 
father had done, but should march them by land to the Helles- 
pont, and cross there by means of some sort of bridge that he 
would construct for the purpose. 

What teas the counsel of Mardoniiis f 

Mardonius, one of his chief generals, expressed a strong ap- 
proval both of the plan itself, and of the proposed mode of ex- 
ecuting it. He said that it was manifestly the destiny of Persia 
to rule the world, and that, as all the neighboring nations in Asia 
had already been subdued, the next step in the path of glory which 
lay before the monarchs of the Persian empire obviously was to 
subjugate Greece. He said, too, that by the plan which Xerxes 
proposed, namely, to enter Greece by means of a bridge across 
the Hellespont, he could take a force into Greece so overpower- 
ing that all attempts at resistance would be utterly hopeless and 
impossible. 

What ivas the opinion of Artahaniis? IIoio did Xerxes 
decide f 

Xerxes had an uncle named Artabanus, a venerable man, who 
was eminent in wisdom as well as advanced in years ; and he, 
when it came to his turn to speak in the council, strongly dis- 
suaded his young nephew from embarking in any such enterprise. 
He told him that it might possibly prove very easy to get into 
Greece, and yet not at all easy for him to get out of it again. But 
Xerxes was young, and ardent, and very sanguine in his disposi- 
tion, and nothing that his counselors could urge would persuade 
him to give up his design. 



80 xp:rxes and the second invasion of Greece. 

Describe the ^lans ichich Xerxes formed^ and arrangements 
that he made for carrying them into execution. 

So he immediately began to form plans, and to make arrange- 
ments in every part of the empire, for enlisting soldiers, purchasing 
horses, establishing granaries and depots of provisions, manufac- 
turing arms and ammunition, and wagons and carriages of every 
kind that were used in the military movements of those days. 
These operations occupied four years, and at the end of that time 
the various divisions of the army were assembled at their several 
places of rendezvous, ready to commence their march ; and at 
length, when the appointed day came, they all advanced together 
on the different converging roads that led to the shores of the Hel- 
lespont, at the point where the bridge was to be made. 

What occurred in resj^cct to the bridge f 

The bridge was to be a floatmg one, built of boats. The strait 
was too wide and deep for any other kind of structure. The boats 
for the bridge had all been made before the army arrived. They 
were now soon arranged in position, and the bridge was made, but 
a storm coming up, the structure was broken to pieces by the 
winds and waves, and so they were obliged to build it a second 
time. 

How teas the bridge constructed? 

There were two ranges of vessels placed side by side, from shore 
to shore. These were all secured to their places by strong cables. 
Over the decks of the vessels a platform was made of timbers, and 
this was covered with a thick layer of earth for a roadway. 

Describe the final crossing of the bridge by the army. 

When the bridge was completed, the immense army commenced 
its march across it in a magnificent procession, arrayed with the 
utmost possible pomp and parade. There were horses and chariots 
elegantly equipped and caparisoned, and camels, and elephants, 
and guards splendidly dressed and armed, and torch-bearers car- 
rying torches aloft in the air, and waving banners and sounding 



XERXES AND THE SECOND INVASION OF GREECE. 81 

trumpets. Tins was the head of the procession. It occupied the 




CROSSING THE HELLESPONT. 



two first days. It consisted first of the vanguard, and then of the 
king himself, with his guards and attendants, and the officers of 
his court. The whole army was so large that it took seven days 
for the troops all to pass over. 

For luhat pw'-pose did the army halt at Doriscus f 

After the passage of the strait had thus been safely effected, 
Xerxes marched the whole army to a great plain, called the Plain 
of Doriscus, not far from the place, and there went through a grand 
review of the whole mighty host. Besides the land forces, there 
were a great many ships that were attendant on the expedition, 
and these were drawn up in a line a little Avay from the shore. 

Describe the review of the troops on land. 

When every thing was ready, Xerxes ascended into his war 
chariot, and, accompanied bv a great cavalcade of officers and 

F 



82 



XERXES AND THE SECOND INVASION OF GREECE. 



M 




















v> 



,..^^ 








1 r-^yrtand^' \ ^ 



TP 



'^ n^K' 






e ~ 



ly vi/ 






V- 



vH 



guards, he rode along the lines of his troops, reviewing tliem alL 
They had been collected from the different nations of Asia, and as 
each separate division of them wore the dress and bore the arms 
peculiar to his own tribe or people, the different portions of the 
line presented an immense variety of splendid equipment, which 
formed a most magnificent spectacle. The lines extended many 
miles. They made a reckoning of the men while encamped on 
this plain, in order to ascertain the number, and found it to be one 
million seven hundred thousand. There is, perhaps, no reliance 
to be placed on the accuracy of this calculation. Indeed, it is quite 
certain that the number was greatly exaggerated, but there is no 
doubt that the army was immensely large. 

Describe the revieio of the fleet. 

After thus reviewing the land forces on the plain, Xerxes em- 
barked in a galley of state, and, accompanied by other galleys for 
his officers and attendants, with flags and banners waving, and the 



XERXES AND THE SECOND INVASION OF GREECE. 83 

oars of the rowers keeping time witli tlic music of military bands, 
lie reviewed the fleet, which w^as drawn up along the shore. 
W/io tvas Demaratus ? 

It happened that there was a Greek exile named Demaratus in 
the Persian camp at this time, and Xerxes, after the review, sent 
for him to come to his tent to ask his opinion of the campaign. 

What ivas the question tuhich Xerxes asked of Demaratus ? 

"You are a Greek," said he, "and know your countrymen. 
Tell me, what do you think ? When they come to see what an 
immense fleet and army I have got, advancing against them, do 
you think they will attempt to resist, or will they submit at once 
without any opposition V 

What vxis Demaratus'' s rejdy 9 

Demaratus was a Spartan, and in reply to Xerxes's question, 
he said in substance that he could not answer so well for the rest 
of Greece, " But I know full w^ell," he added, " that if all the rest 
of Greece were to submit, and the Spartans had only a single 
thousand men, they Avould fight you." 

Relate the farther jpi'ogress of the exjpedition. What diffi- 
culties did they encounter ? 

Xerxes smiled at this idea, and soon afterw^ard set his immense 
army in motion. Of course, the difiiculties of getting forward such 
a mighty mass, with all the trains of baggage and provisions that 
attended them, were immense. They had to make roads, and build 
bridges, and cut through mountains, and drain swamps, and per- 
form a vast number of similar engineering operations. Then there 
was great difficulty in obtaining food and water for such a mighty 
throng. They ate up all the corn they could bring with them or 
find in the country, and drank all the springs and rivulets dry. 

What was the effect of this invasion on the 2^^ople of the 
country f 

The route of the army lay along the northern shores of the 
^Egean Sea. You wail see the track marked upon the map. 



84 



XERXES AND THE SECOND INVASION OF GREECE. 



The people of the countiy, while the army were passing, were in 
a state of the utmost terror and dismay. Some fled from their 
dwellings, carrying with them all such valuables as they could 
easily remove. Those that remained were often treated with great 
cruelty. Their possessions were seized by the soldiers, and some- 
times they themselves were made captives, and compelled to fol- 
low the army. At one time Xerxes conceived the plan of offer- 
ing a human sacrifice, in order to propitiate the favor of some of 
the gods, and so he took nine young men and nine young girls 
from the people of the country, and buried them alive. 

W/uU was the success of the embassadors sent forward by 
Xerxes f 

While his army was thus advancing into the country, he sent 
embassadors forward to the various cities and states, summoning 
the people to surrender to him and acknowledge themselves trib- 




THE PKIiSiAX EMBASSADORS AT SPARTA. 



XERXES AND THE SECOND INVASION OF GREECE. 85 

utaries to Persia. The customary form of sending such a sum- 
mons in those days was to demand ''earth and water." Tlie 
giving of a little earth and water, with certain ceremonies of trans- 
fer, denoted a conveyance of a title to the country from which the 
earth and water were taken. When Xerxes's embassadors came 
to Sparta, the people took them into the street and threw them 
down- into one of the public wells, telling them that if they w^ant- 
ed earth and water they would find plenty of it there. 

Describe the character of the country through lohich the army 
loas to march. What tvas the situation of ThennopylcB f 

You will see by the map that Xerxes, in marching his army 
round the ^Egean Sea, would pass through Tlirace and a part of 
Macedonia, and thence through Thessaly. These were all com- 
paratively open countries, and could not w^ell be defended by a 
small force against a large army. But between Thessaly and the 
other states of Greece Avhich lay to the southward there w^as a 
range of mountains extending across the country, with only a nar- 
row pass at a place called Thermopylae, between the mountains 
and the sea, through wliich the army could pass. So the Greeks 
determined to concentrate their forces at this pass, and endeavor 
to stop the Persian army tliere. 

Describe the battle of Thermo])ylc2. 

When at length Xerxes and the advanced guard of his forces 
came up to the defile, the great and celebrated battle of Thermop- 
ylae w\as fouglit. There w^ere three hundred Spartans, under a 
general named Leonidas, stationed at the head of the defile, at a 
place where the pass was so narrow^ that very few men could be 
engaged. Xerxes sent forward detachment after detachment from 
his army to break through this guard, but they could not succeed. 
At length, after some days, the Persian troops found a way up by 
a secret path through the forests and along the side of the mount- 
ain, so as to come out upon the pass at a wider place, some dis- 
tance below where the Spartans were stationed. They went in 



86 XERXES AND THE SECOND INVASION OF GKEECE. 

the night, and the next morning the Greeks in the defile below 
saw them assembled on the declivities of the mountain, ready to 
come down upon them in great numbers to overwhelm them. 
They immediately — all except the Spartans — resolved to retreat. 

What ivas the determination formed by Leonidas ? What 
was his fate ? 

The Spartans, however, would not go. Leonidas said that he 
had been sent there by his government to defend the pass ; he had 
had no orders to leave his post, and, therefore, come life or death, 
he should stand to it to the end. So the other Greeks retired, 
and the Persians poured down in thousands from the declivities 
of the mountain upon poor Leonidas and his band, and, after a 
dreadful combat, killed them every one. 

What folloived after the forcing of the jxcss f 

The pass was now open. The whole Persian army marched 
on, and, after ravaging all the country on the Avay, they reached 
Athens, took possession of it, and burned it. 

Descmhe the progress of the fleet. What ha2)j>ened at Sala- 
mis f 

But, though thus far successful with his army, Xerxes was des- 
tined to meet with a great reverse in his fleet. While he was 
marching toward Athens, his fleet was advancing by sea in the 
same direction, intending to attack the Greek fleet, which was an- 
chored at Salamis, near Athens. When the time arrived for the 
battle, he caused a throne to be built for himself on an eminence 
near, so that he could watch the contest, expecting to enjoy the 
spectacle of a great victory. Instead of that, however, he had to 
witness a dreadful defeat. The battle was long-continued, and 
fought with savage ferocity ; but the Persians were defeated, and 
their fleet almost wholly destroyed. This was the great battle of 
Salamis. 

HoiD did the lohole exjyedition finally end? 

Things soon took an unfavorable turn, too, on land, and Xerxes, 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 87 

discouraged and alarmed, began to feel anxious to get away from 
the country and return home. After a great deal of debate with 
his generals, he finally set out on his return ; but, as the resources 
of the country were now mostly consumed, the troops suffered in- 
conceivable hardships on the way. Hundreds and thousands of 
them perished of hunger, exposure, and disease. The bridge 
across the Hellespont was broken down, and vast numbers of the 
men, worn out by sickness and fatigue, were drowned in their at- 
tempts to get over. Xerxes himself, however, with a small num- 
ber of his guards, succeeded at last in getting safely back to Susa. 
W/iat tvas the fate of Xerxes f 

Here, overwdielmed wdth mortification and chagrin, he gave him- 
self up to reckless dissipation and vice, and was finally assassin- 
ated by one of the officers of his household. 



CHAPTEH IX. 

ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

What luere the relations of Macedon, the country of Alexan- 
der, at this time ? 

Alexander the Great was king of ^lacedon, which, though lyina" 
north of Greece proper, was still itself essentially Greek in the 
language and character of its people, and during the lifetime of 
Alexander's father, Philip, it was connected with the other states 
in their general congress or confederation. 

Describe Alexander'' s character. What icere the first objects 
of his attention after asceJiding the throne ? 

Alexander succeeded to the throne of Macedon when he was a 
very young man. He was, however, possessed of very command- 
ing talents, and w^as inspired with a very lofty ambition. He 
spent some time after his accession to the throne in subduing re- 
bellions in his provinces, and in securing to himself the same as- 



88 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

cendency that his father had held in the Greek confederacy, and 
which the other states were at first disposed to refuse to him on 
account of his being so young. He was tlien but little more than 
twenty years of age. 

Did these nneasures succeed? 

The measures which he took to accomplish these ends were so 
vigorous and determined, and he carried them into effect with so 
much resolution, and, at the same time, with so much prudence 
and skill, that all Greece soon acquiesced in his ascendency over 
them, and he found himself in complete and quiet possession of 
more than his father's power. 

What grand design did he at length form ? 

At length, in looking around for something new to undertake, 
he conceived the design of retaliating on tlie Persians for their re- 
peated invasions of Greece, under Darius and Xerxes, by under- 
taking himself a grand invasion of Persia. For a man so young 
as he, scarcely twenty years of age, the sovereign, too, of so com- 
paratively small a kingdom, to conceive the design of marching a 
thousand miles into the heart of the greatest and most powerful 
empire in the world, was one of the boldest and most extraordinary 
undertakings that could easily be conceived. 

Who loere his 2yrinci]}al generals? 

There were two old generals, named Antipater and Parmenio, 
who had served under Philip, Alexander's father, and they strong- 
ly dissuaded the young prince from engaging in so desperate an 
enterprise. But he persisted in his design. 

Describe the arrangements that he made in setting out on this 
expedition. 

He raised an army of thirty-five thousand men for the cam- 
paign. He took Parmenio with him to command the troops, and 
left Antipater at home to govern Macedon while he should be gone. 
With these troops he crossed the Hellespont, and commenced his 
march through Asia Minor, 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 89 

IVhere is the llivcr Granicusf What forces did Alexander 
encounter there f 

Here, however, lie was soon met and opposed by a large Per- 
sian army of several hundred thousand men, that were drawn up 
on the banks of a small river called the Granicus, which was near 
the site of the ancient city of Troy. It seems that Darius (for 
that was the name of the king of Persia at that time) had heard 
of Alexander's plans, and had sent one of his generals, named 
Memnon, to meet him as soon as he should enter the Persian do- 
minions. So Memnon gathered together all the troops that were 
at his command in that part of the empire, and, having drawn 
them up on the banks of the Granicus, waited there to see what 
Alexander would do. He felt confident of victory, for his troops 
were far more numerous than those of Alexander. 
Describe the battle. What was the result of it f 
Alexander, when he arrived at the bank of the river, was not at 
all intimidated by the superiority of the force brought up to op- 
pose him, but, drawing up his men in order of battle, he marched 
them across the stream, and attacked the Persians on the bank 
with the utmost fury. After an obstinate conflict, the Persians 
were entirely defeated. Their ranks were thrown into disorder, 
and they fled in all directions. Alexander encamped on the bat- 
tle-ground to refresh his troops and take care of the wounded. In 
a few days he resumed his march, and advanced into Asia ]\Iinor 
without any opposition. 



What VMS the situation of It 



SSUS i 



By a reference to the map on the following page you will see 
the River Granicus, and also, on the northeastern corner of the 
Mediterranean Sea, you will see a place marked Issus. It was 
at Issus that Alexander fought his next PTeat battle. He foudit 

O O o 

here against Darius himself; for Darius, as soon as he heard that 
Memnon had been vanquished at Granicus, and that .Uexandcr 
was coming on with none to oppose him, immediately gathered 



90 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 



















MARCH OF ALEXANDER. 



together all the disposable forces of his realms, and prepared to 
go forth himself to meet the invader. 

What preparations did Darius Qual'c to oneet Alexander? 

Darius did not think there was any serious danger in the ap- 
proach of such a " boy," as he called him, and of so small a force, 
but he thought that the occasion afforded him a fine opportunity 
to make a display of his gTcatness and power. So he organized 
an immense armament, and set forth at the head of it with great 
pomp and parade. He brought with him his family and all his 
court, and a vast quantity of gold and silver in the form of camp 
equipage and other treasures. The Persians were always very fond 
of pomp and display, and on this occasion Darius undertook to sur- 
pass all that the world had ever seen of military grandeur. 

Describe the battle of Issus. What loas the result of it f 

Darius marched westward from Susa, while Alexander was ad- 
\-ancing to the eastward through Asia ]\Iinor. The two armies 
met at Issus, and a great battle was fought. The Greeks were 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 91 

victorious. The Persian troops were routed every where, and all 
the roads were thronged with tlie flying masses, that trampled upon 
and killed each other as they fled in terror and confusion. All ol" 
the tents, with the immense treasures that they contained, fell into 
Alexander's hands, and the mother and wife of Darius, together 
with many other of the ladies of the court, were taken captives. 
Darius himself barely succeeded in escaping the same fate. 

How did Alexander treat his captives ? 

Alexander treated his captives, especially the mother and wife 
of Darius, in the most kind and considerate manner. 

What jplans did Alexander now form? 

He concluded that he would not follow Darius immediately, but 
would first go dow^n the coast of the ^lediterranean Sea, and take 
possession of Tyre, which was at that time a great and wealthy 
commercial city. 

Describe ivhat took place at Tyre. 

The city of Tyre was built on an island, at a little distance from 
the main land, and, in order to reach it with his troops, Alexander 
undertook to build a pier to cross upon ; but, before the pier was 
finished, the Tyrians came across from the city in galleys, and set 
the end of it, and the battering machines which stood upon it, on 
lire, and a great part of the works were consumed. They were 
soon, however, repaired, and the pier completed ; and then Alex- 
ander at length obtained possession of the city. 

What proposal did Alexander receive from Darius at this 
time ? ' What was Alexander'' s decision ? 

About this time Alexander received an embassage from Darius 
proposing peace. By this embassage Darius offered him a very 
large sum of money for the ransom of his family, and agreed to 
give up to him all the western part of Asia, as far as to the Eiver 
Euphrates. But Alexander refused these proposals, and insisted 
on going on until he had conquered the whole. His aged general 
Parmenio advised him to accept this offer. But Alexander re- 



92 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

fiisecl. " I would," said Parmenio, " if /were Alexander." " So 
would I," said iilexander, ^'if I were Parmenio." 

Where did Alexcmde?' go after leaving Tyre ? What great 
oity did he found there f 

From Tyre Alexander continued his march to the southward 
into Egypt. You will see the situation of Egypt by looking at 
the map.* Here he had a great variety of adventures, but was, 
on the whole, successful in the campaign. While in Egypt he 
laid the foundations of the city of Alexandria, near one of the 
mouths of the Nile, and so well was the site of the city chosen, 
that it soon became one of the most wealthy and powerful com- 
mercial cities in all the East. Indeed, it has continued to main- 
tain this character, in a great measure, to the present day. It is 
the principal port of Egypt, and has been celebrated for many cen- 
turies as the great resort of merchants and travelers in that country. 

Where did A lexander j^roceed after leaving Egy2)t f Describe 
what took place at the River Tigris. 

After completing his conquest of Egypt, Alexander turned his 
course again to the northward, and advanced into the heart of the 
Persian dominions. Darius, in the mean time, had collected an- 
other immense army, and had drawn them up to meet Alexander 
on the plains of xVrbela, in the country of the Tigris and Eupln-ates. 
Alexander, in marching to meet Darius, had great difficulty in 
crossing the Eiver Tigris. His army undertook to wade across 
the stream, but the current was so deep and rapid that many of 
the men were swept away and drowned, and others, who were not 
carried away themselves, lost their spears and their bundles of 
clothes, and these things were floated down in immense quanti- 
ties, to embarrass and impede the men below. Alexander waded 
with the rest. He went in advance of the others to help find the 
shallowest parts and the best places to land. At length they 
reached the bank, and the army then marched on toward Arbela, 

* See Page 90. 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 93 

Where was the Jinal battle fought ? Describe Alexa7iders 
dress and aj^jpearance on the morning of the battle. 

At Arbela the great final battle was fought. On the mornino- of 
the battle, Alexander was very much excited with sentiments of 
pride and joy. He dressed himself in very splendid armor. He 
wore a short tunic, with a belt embossed with beautiful figures. 
On his head he had a helmet of polished steel, with a neck-piece be- 
hind made of the same metal, and ornamented with precious stones. 
The helmet was surmounted with a white plume. His sword was 
light and slender, and was of the most perfect temper. It was a 
present to him from the King of Cyprus. He carried, also, a shield 
and a lance, both made in the most perfect manner for use, and 
not for display. Every part of his dress, in a word, was arranged 
for convenience and efficiency. 

What were the means of defense en%2Jloyed by the Persians f 

The Persians had elephants in their armies, and war chariots 
such as v/e saw represented in the sculptures of the ancient As- 
syrians, only these Persian chariots had the axles armed with 
scythes, made to cut down the enemy when the chariots were 
driven among them. The numbers of the Persians, too, were im- 
mense. Their lines extended for many miles along the plain. 

Describe the residt of the battle. 

The Persians were defeated. The ]\Iacedonians advanced in a 
small, but compact and irresistible band, bearing down every thing 
before them. The elephants turned and fled, and in their flight 
they trampled down the Persian ranks that were behind them. 
Alexander's soldiers seized the chariots and disabled them by 
cutting the traces of the harness. In a short time the whole Per- 
sian host was thrown into confusion and fled, and Alexander was 
left master, not only of Arbela, but of the whole Persian empire. 

What progress did Alexander make after the battle of A r- 
belaf 

After this he met with very little resistance. He took posses- 



94 ALEXANDER THE GEEAT. 

slon of all the great Persian capitals, and he marched through vviUl 




MA urn THIiOLCiU illE PA 



mountain passes, to the remotest provinces of the country, until 
he had subjected the whole empire to his sway. 

W/iat teas the fate of Darius ? 

xls to the unhappy Darius, his fate was now sealed. After the 
battle of Arbela, some of his generals, headed by one named Bes- 
sus, rebelled against him, made him a prisoner, and fled, carrying 
him with them. Alexander pursued them. After hunting the 
fugitives for some days among the mountain roads, they at length 
came up so near to them that Bessus and liis men, finding that 
they could not get away, stabbed Darius, and then fled themselves 
alone. Darius died very soon after Alexander came to the spot. 

What was the fate of Alexander? 

Alexander was now sole master of the Persian emj^ire. lie 



THE FOUNDATION OF ROME. 95 

went to Babylon, and there, in the pride and joy which he felt in 
having accomplished so great an enterprise, and acquired so re- 
splendent a fame, he gave himself up to dissipation and intemper- 
ance to such a degree as to destroy his health, and at length he 
died suddenly in the midst of one of his carousings. 

W/iat became of his empire after his death .■ 

His vast empire was then divided among his generals, who, by 
the wars which they waged with one another, kept the world in 
terror for many years. 



CHAPTER X. 

THE FOUNDATION OF ROME. 



During the contests hetioeen the Greelcs and the Persians, lohat 
other great onjjire was rising to jjoioer ? 

During all this time, while these dreadful contests for power 
had been going on between' the Greeks and Persians on the con- 
fines of Europe and Asia, another great empire had been rising up 
farther to the west. This was the Roman empire. 

At lohat period was Pome originally founded? 

The seat and capital of the Roman empire was the city of 
Rome, wdiich was built on the River Tiber, in Italy. In order to 
give an account of the original building of it, we rriust go back 
several hundred years, for the founding of Rome took place in 
about the year 750 before Christ, while Alexander died only a 
little more than 300 years before that era. 

For tuhat purposes were cities usually built i7i ancient times .^ 
IToio were they defended? 

The cities built in ancient times were very different in their or- 
igin from those of the present day. They were built then by 
companies of armed men, banded together for mutual defense. 
The people of the country around cultivated the land, and paid 



96 THE FOUNDATION OF ROME. 

tribute to the government of the cities, in consideration of being- 
defended from any enemies that might come to plunder their farms. 
The cities were generally surrounded with walls, so that in case 
of alarm, the people of the surrounding country might retreat to 
them, and be defended. 

Why are not modern cities usually surrounded icith umlls f 

Yery few cities built at the present day are surrounded with 
walls, partly because walls now would be of no use unless they 
are made thick enough and strong enough to stand against cannon, 
and to make such walls as these is immensely expensive. But 
all that was required in ancient times was to make walls that men 
could not climb over. The worst that in any case they had to 
stand against was the blow of a battering-ram, and it was very 
easy to make a structure solid enough for that. 
, Are there any authentic accounts of the original building of 
Rome f 

Eome was such a city as this at the beginning. There was no 
account of the first building of it written at the time ; it is very 
doubtful even whether any of those who were concerned in the 
affair knew how to write, nor is it probable that they attached any 
great importance to what they were doing, for there was no rea- 
son to suppose that the town would ever become any greater or 
more powerful than any of the thousand other towns in Italy, and 
in the countries around it, that had risen up in substantially the 
same way. At length, however, when Eome became a great city, 
a most extraordinary and romantic tale was found to be coming 
down from generation to generation in respect to the first building 
of the city. It is not now supposed that this story is true ; but, 
though w^e can not really believe it, it is still proper to know 
what it is. 

What is the ancient legend in resjpect to ^neas ? 

The story is, then, that the ancestors of the men who built 
Eome came from Troy by sea, under ^Eneas, and landed in a part 



THE FOUNDATION OF ROME. 



97 






of Ital}- called Latium, on the banks of the Tiber, a short distance 

_ from its mouth. 
In the adjoining 
map you will see 
the situation of 
Latium, and the 
place where ^n- 
eas is reputed to 
have landed, not 
far from the Ti- 
ber's mouth. 

What was the 
issue of the land- 
ing in Italy of 
y^neas and his 
folloioers ? 

These men set- 
tled in the coun- 
which lasted for 







try, and formed a kingdom of their own there 
several hundred years. 

Why did the brother of the royal x^rhicess ivish to destroy his 
sister'' s tioin children? IIoio did he j^rojpose to destroy them? 

At length it happened that a certain princess of the royal fam- 
ily, who had been consecrated as a virgin in a temple in one of 
the towns in Latium, in violation of the vows which she had 
taken, united herself to a young man whom she accidentally met 
in a grove near the temple, and lived with him secretly. After a 
time she had two children — twins. Her uncle, who was then 
king of the country, was very angry at this. He ordered the 
children to be thrown into the Tiber. The reason why he did 
this was, lie was afraid that, when these children grew up, they 
might dispute his right to the throne, being, as they were, the 
princess's children. 

G 



98 



THE FOUNDATION OF EOME. 



Describe the plan adopted by Faustulus for destroying the 
childrev. 

The name of the 
man who was sent 
to drown the chil- 
dren was Faustu- 
lus. He could not 
bear to throw the 
helpless babes di- 
rectly into the wa- 
ter, and so he made 
a sort of box for 
them. Having put 
the children in it, 
he launched them 
forth upon the wa- 
ter. "Poor little 
things!" said he ; "I will give you what chance I can for your 
lives." 

Who icere these children f 

These children were the celebrated twins Romulus and Eemus, 
who afterward became the founders of Rome. 

What became of the ark that they were placed in? 
The little box or ark in which Faustulus had placed the babes 
was carried swiftly down the current, until at length, at a little 
curve in the stream, it struck upon the beach and was upset ; the 
poor children were tumbled out upon the sand. 
IIoxo were the lives of the children saved f 
They immediately began to cry, and an old mother wolf who 
happened at that time to be prowling in the forest heard them, and 
came to see what was the matter. The wolf took pity on the 
children, thinking, probably, that they were little wolves, and nes- 
tled down over them to nurse them. 




THE TWINS. 



THE FOUNDATION OF ROME, 99 

What animal aided the loolf in taking care of the children f 
What finally became of them ? 

The wolf took care of the children for some days. There was 
a woodpecker in the woods, too, that assisted her, by bringing 
ripe strawberries and other such things for the children to eat. 
At length a herdsman who lived in that neighborhood found the 
babes in the nest which the wolf had made for them in the grass 
by the river side, and brought them home. He also found the 
box which the children had floated down in, and carried that 
home too. 

Whe7i the young men grew up, lohat became of them f 

The boys grew up, and became remarkably tall, handsome, and 
accomplished young men. At length the secret of their birth was 
discovered, and they went back, after meeting with various adven- 
tures and encountering many difficulties, to the royal palace in 
Alba, which was at that time the capital of the kingdom. Here, 
in the course of a year or two, certain difficulties arose between 
the young men and the government. A strong party adhered to 
Romulus and Remus, and at length, to settle the trouble, it was 
arranged that they should leave Alba with all their friends and 
followers, and go and build a new city for themselves. 

Where did they go to found a new city f 

Eomulus and Remus set off at the head of their company, and. 
after exploring the neighboring country for some time, they se- 
lected a place on the Tiber for the site of their city, and they al] 
went to work to build the wall. 

Describe the quarrel v^hich occurred between Romulus and 
Remus. 

The work went on pretty well for some days, only there soon 
began to grow up a difficulty between Romulus and Remus in re- 
spect to the command. Each was jealous of the other, and wish- 
ed to be first himself. In the end, a sudden quarrel arose one 
day about the wall, when Romulus took up a spade, and struck 



100 THE FOUNDATION OF EOME. 

liis brother down with it in a fit of passion. Poor Eemus was 
killed in an instant by the blow. 

Hoio loas Romulus affected ivhen lie saio what he had done f 

Romulus was overwhelmed with remorse and horror at the deed 
he had done, and he did every thing in his power to express his 
grief, and to show respect to the memory of his brother. 

Describe the progress of the enterprise after Bemuis death. 

After a brief interruption, produced by this unhappy event, the 
work of building the city went on. A great number of people 
from the neighboring country came in to join the enterprise, so 
that it was necessary that the original plan should be enlarged. 
After a time they consulted on the system of government to be 
adopted, and decided to make it a monarchy. They chose Rom- 
ulus king. From this small beginning arose the great and world- 
renowned city of Rome. 

With what neighboring country did the llomans first become 
involved in war f 

Things went on very peaceably for some time with the new 
kingdom, for most of the surrounding provinces gave their allegi- 
ance to the new government of their own accord. The Romans, 
however, at length became involved in a terrible war with a peo- 
ple called the Sabines. You will see the situation of the Sabine 
country in relation to Rome by looking again at the map.* It 
lies to the northeastward from Rome. 

What was the first great ivant experienced in Rome in respect 
to ])opulation f 

This w^ar had a very extraordinary origin. It was wholly the 
fault of the Romans. The case was this. They found, after their 
city was built and their kingdom in some degree established, that 
the inhabitants were almost altogether of the male sex. The rea- 
on was, that, though the young men were willing to come in great 
numbers to join their enterprise, the girls and young women of the 

* See map on page 97, 



THE FOUNDATION OF ROME. 101 

surrounding countries were afraid to trust themselves in such a 
turbulent community. 

Describe the jjlan which the liomans formed for jy^'ocwing 
wives. 

In order to remedy this want, the Romans prepared a splendid 
spectacle and entertainment just without the city, and invited the 
Sabines to come, bringing with them their sisters, and cousins, 
and other female friends. In the midst of the feast, the Romans 
arose and seized the women, each taking one for his own wife, and 
carried them off within the walls of the city, while they drove the 
men away. 

How did they contrive to seize and hear away the ivomen f 

They accomplished their stratagem by means of the sudden- 
ness and unexpectedness of the movement. Romulus himsell 
gave the signal. He chose a moment during the last day of the 
celebration, when the attention of the company was absorbed by 
a grand spectacle, and the Sabine men were wholly off their guard, 
Romulus himself was seated on a sort of throne, where all tho 
Romans could see him, and he gave the signal by taking off his- 
mantle. When the Romans saw the signal, they all arose at once, 
drew their swords, seized the females, and bore them away before 
the Sabines had time to arm themselves, or recover from theii 
surprise. 

What ivas the result of this measwe f 

The men went home in a great rage, and immediately declared 
war. The war was carried on for some time with great vigor, 
the Sabine women remaining all the time within the city with 
their husbands ; for the Romans had at once persuaded or com- 
pelled them to become their wives. 

What was the projposal made by Tarj)eia in respect to admit- 
ting the Sabines into the city? 

At one time the Sabines came very near taking the city. The} 
did succeed in getting possession of a portion of it. A girl named 



102 



THE FOUNDATION OF EOME. 



Tarpeia let them in. She spoke to them from the top of the wall 
at one time when there was nobody by to hear, and promised thai 
^^ ^ ^ _ _ s^^® would open a 



gate for them in 
the night and let 
them in, if they 
would present her 
those things thai 
they wore on their 
arms. She refer- 
red in this offer 
to certain brace- 
lets which she saw 
upon the soldiers' 
wrists. She dis- 
covered that they 
were ornaments of 
some kind, but yet 
she seems not to have known what they were called. 
ITow did the soldiers fuljill their agreement? 
The crafty soldiers promised to grant her request, and at night 
Tarpeia opened one of the gates, and let them in. The soldiers 
then, as they passed along by her' in going through the gate, threw 
their shields upon her until their number and weight crushed her 
to death, saying, as they did so, that that was what they wore 
upon their arms. 

In what way was the Sabine war finally ended? 
After a while, the Sabine war was brought to a conclusion 
through the intercession of the Sabine women themselves. They 
came out between the combatants, and begged them not to fight 
any more. They told their fathers and brothers that, although 
they were dreadfully frightened at first, yet now, since they had 
become settled as the wives of the Romans, they were contented 




THE BRACELETb 



THE FOUNDATION OF ROME. 103 

and happ7 ; and, at any rate, the mischief was done, and could 
not now be undone, and so they entreated the two nations to make 
peace and live in harmony. 

Describe the plan of union which was finally formed. 

They all finally agreed to these proposals, and the Sabines and 
Eomans joined together to form one kingdom. The Sabine terri- 
tory was added to the Eoman dominions, and the Sabine chieftains 
came to Kome and shared in the government there. 

Who succeeded Romulus as king f 

Eomulus lived some years after this, and at length died, and 
another king, whose name was iSTuma Pompilius, succeeded him. 
Numa Pompilius was a Sabine. 

Describe the condition and 2yrogress of Home under the kings. 

After this the kingdom of Rome continued to flourish more and 
more for many years, under a line of several successive kings. 
Excellent arrangements were planned for the internal administra- 
tion of the country, and many additions were made to the terri- 
tory, some by war and conquest, and some by peaceable negotia- 
tions. Every thing went on prosperously and well, except that 
the kings gradually became arbitrary and tyrannical. At first, as 
is usual in such cases, they were wise and good, and formed their 
plans and arrangements with a view to promote the welfare of the 
people, but each new monarch was less faithful to his duties than 
his predecessors, and at last they became extremely unjust, selfish, 
and tyrannical. 

In what manner was the reign of the kings brought to an end? 

After some time, one of the kings, named Tarquin, treated a 
noble Roman lady so outrageously, at a time when her husband 
was away, that she killed herself as soon as her husband had re- 
turned, and she had had an opportunity to call upon him to re- 
venge her wrongs. Her husband raised a rebellion, and the peo- 
ple drove Tarquin out of the city, and resolved that they would 
never be governed by any king again. 



104 EOME UNDER THE CONSULS. 

How long did the hingly govermnent continue in Home f 
Rome was governed by kings for about two hundred and forty- 
tive years. 



CHAPTER XI. 

EOME UNDER THE CONSULS. 



What system of government did the Romans adopt after ex- 
pelling the kings f 

When the Romans deposed their kings, they adopted the plan 
of choosing every year two chief magistrates, called consuls, who 
were to reign in conjunction with each other. This system con- 
tinued for about five hundred years, and under it the Roman com- 
monwealth rose to a very high degree of grandeur and renown. 

Describe the condition and progress of Rome under the consids. 

The city itself, during this period, advanced very rapidly in 
size, in population, and in wealth. The walls were extended, and 
the inclosed space enlarged, and castles and temples were built 
upon the hills. The government was so well planned and so 
ably administered, and the measures that were adopted were so 
systematic and comprehensive, and were carried into effect with 
so much promptness, resolution, and energy, that the power of the 
Romans extended continually more and more, until at length the 
whole of Italy was brought under its dominion, and then they be- 
gan to make conquests and establish colonies beyond the seas. 

In ivhat manner did the Romans exercise their power over the 
nations that they conquered? 

The various nations which came thus under the dominion of 
the Romans submitted generally very readily and willingly to 
their sway, for the government which they exercised over their 
realms was usually very just and fair. They made great improve- 
ments in the laws of these countries, and they constructed an im- 



ROME UNDER THE CONSULS. 



105 



mense number of public works which were of great utility. They 
built aqueducts to convey water into towns, and bridges across 
rivers, and piers and breakwaters in ports, and light-houses for the 
guidance of ships coming in from sea. 

Describe the military roads which they constructed. 

They also constructed great military roads all over Italy, making 




ROMAN MILITAEY ROAD. 



them so hard, and smooth, and straight, and building them of such 
solid and substantial materials, that many of them remain to the 
present day. These roads were intended in a great measure for 
military purposes, such as the marching of armies and the trans- 
port of baggage, but they were so extremely useful for tlie pur- 
poses of trade and commerce, that they exerted a vast influence 
in promoting the progress of the people of Europe in refinement 
and civilization. 



106 



ROME UNDER THE CONSULS. 



Who and what were the jplebeians f Who were the jpatri- 
cians f 

Notwithstanding this general prosperity, the Eomans experi- 
enced many difficulties and incurred many dangers during this pe- 
riod. One of their troubles was the internal dissensions that took 
place between the different classes of the population. The lower 
classes of people were called J^?Z^^<2^«?^c^. The upper classes were 




PLEBEIANS. 



styled the patricians. The plebeians w^ere a very sturdy and 
somewhat turbulent set of men, who were by no means disposed 
to submit to being trampled upon by the proud, aristocratic fam- 
ilies above them, and thus a great many contests arose, each party 
contending for a greater share of power than the other was willing 
to accord to it. At length the plebeians carried the day, and the 



EOME UNDER THE CONSULS. 107 

patricians were obliged to allow to them their proper share of the 
power. 

Give an account of the ivccr made upon the Romans by the 
Gauls. 

At one time, too, the Roman commonwealth came very near be- 
ing entirely overwhelmed and destroyed by the violence of foreign 
enemies, and it was saved by the courage and military skill of one 
of the plebeian generals, whose name was Camillas. The enemies 
in this case were the Gauls, the people that inhabited the northern 
part of Italy. The Gauls had advanced to the very gates of Rome. 
The people and a portion of the army were shut up within the city, 
while the principal part of the army had fled to a neighboring 
stronghold, and had intrenched themselves there. They were 
greatly perplexed, and did not know what to do. 

To whom did the army offer the command? What luas the 
reply of Camillus f 

The army at last sent for Camillus to come and take the com- 
mand. Camillus had had the command in former wars, and had 
acquired great renown ; but he had afterward fallen into disfavor 
with the people, and had gone into banishment. And now, when 
the army sent to him to come and take the command of them again, 
he replied that he would not do it unless the people of Rome 
themselves voted to appoint him. So they sent a messenger to 
see if he could make his way into the city. This was an ex- 
tremely difficult undertaking, for the Gauls had invested Rome on 
all sides; they had even broken through the walls, taken posses- 
sion of and burned a large part of the city, and had shut up the 
Romans that remained in a sort of citadel on the top of Capitol Hill, 
where it would be very difficult for the messenger to reach them. 

What ivas the decision of the people f 

The messenger, however, succeeded in making his way into the 
city, and in getting into the citadel. The people there, on receiv- 
ing his message, voted unanimously to make Camillus dictator. 



108 ROME UNDER THE CONSULS. 

What were the powers of a dictator f 

A dictator was an officer appointed in great and extreme emer- 
gencies, with absolute power to do whatever he thought best. 
Every body was to obey him, whatever his orders might be. 

Describe the occurrences which took place when Camilliis as- 
sumed the command. 

When the messenger returned, Camillus took command of the 
army, and marched to the rehef of Rome. He came upon the 
Gauls by surprise just as the Roman people were weighing out a 
large sum of money in gold to pay for peace. Camillus stopped 
this proceeding at once, saying that the Romans were accustomed 
to secure peace with steel, not with gold. He fell upon the Gauls 
with great fury, and routed them completely. Their army was 
utterly discomfited and driven away, and Rome was saved. 

What were the feelings of the people when they saio the con- 
dition of the city ? 

When the people came down from the Capitol, and found to 
how complete a state of devastation and ruin the city had been 
reduced, they were so dispirited and discouraged that many of 
them were inclined to abandon it altogether, and to emigrate in a 
mass to some other place ; but Camillus dissuaded them from doing 
this, and so they all went to work to repair and rebuild the city, 
and in a few years it w\as greater, more wealthy, and more pros- 
perous than ever. 

In what two great foreign wars were the Rom^ans engaged 
during the time of the consuls ? 

During the time that Rome was under the consular govern- 
ment, the people were engaged in two great foreign wars, which 
were so important that they must be made the subjects of separate 
chapters. The first was a war with Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, and 
the second was with the Carthaginians. 



PYRRHUS, KING OF EPIRUS. 109 



CHAPTER XII. 

PYRRHUS, KING OF EPIRUS. 

Describe the situation of Epirus. 

The country of Epirus was situated on the Grecian side of tho 
seas lying to the westward of Italy. You will see the position 
of it by the map on the next page. It was north of Greece proper, 
and to the southward and westward of Macedonia, the country oi 
Alexander. 

Who ivas the king of Epirus at this time? 

Pyrrhus was born about four years after Alexander, so that tho 
wars which Alexander waged in tlie East against the Persians 
took place at nearly the same period in the history of the world 
with those which Pyrrhus carried on in the West with the Romans. 

What danger did Pyrrhus escaj^e in his childhood f 

There were two rival families in Epirus, each of which claimed 
the throne. Pyrrhus was the heir of one of these families. The 
other family succeeded in gaining the ascendency, and- they de- 
termined to kill all the members of the rival household, so as to 
get them out of the way. They did kill nearly all of them, but 
Pyrrhus himself escaped. 

Hoio VMS he rescued ? 

He was an infant at the time, and his life was saved by his 
nurses and attendants carrying him away. They fled with him, 
intending to take him across the frontier of the country into Mac- 
edonia, where they thought he would be safe. 

a elate the occurrences of his flight. 

At one time they came very near being overtaken by the troops 
which were sent to pursue them, for they were stopped in their 
course by a river which was so swollen by the rains that they 
could not get across it. There was a town on the other side, and 



110 



PYKKHUS, KING OF EPIEUS. 




some people of the town were standing on the shore when they 
came up. The persons who had charge of little Pjrrhus called 
out to these people, but could not make them hear, on account of 
the roaring of the stream. They wished to tell the townspeople 
upon the other bank who they were, and to ask them to contrive 
some way by which they, and the little prince under their charge, 
might get across the water. But it was impossible to make them 
hear. 

IIoiD did the party cominunicate their wishes across the river ? 

They stripped a piece of bark from a tree that was growing there 
on the bank, and wrote what they wanted upon it by means of the 
tongue of a buckle which belonged to the belt of one of the young 
men. Then they tied the piece of bark to a stone or something 
heavy, and threw it across the stream to the people on the other 
side. 

How did they transport the child across the river ? 

The people then got axes, and cut down some trees, and made 



PYEEHUS, KING OP EPIEUS. Ill 

a raft, and in this way they got the child and all the persons who 
were with him safely over. 

What became of Pyrrhiis after this escape f 

The men who had charge of Pyrrhus found it would not be 
safe for him to remain in Macedonia, so they turned to the north- 
ward, and went on till they came to the country of Illyria, which 
you will see on the map lying to the northward of Macedonia and 
Epirus. Here little Pyrrhus was received and taken care of by 
the king, and he remained here until he grew up. to be a man. 
Then, after waiting for a time to watch for a favorable opportunity, 
he raised an army and marched into Epirus. The people were 
willing to receive him, having fallen out at that time with the other 
branch of the royal family, and so he very easily established him- 
self on the throne. 

Describe the character of Pyrrhiis, What was the first loar 
that he became engaged in ? 

Pyrrhus was a very ambitious, high-spirited, and warlike man, 
and was not at all disposed to remain quietly at home, and gov- 
ern his empire in peace and quietness. There were various wars 
going on at this time among the surrounding nations, particularly 
in Macedonia, where two or three different princes were fighting 
for the mastery of the kingdom. Pyrrhus joined himself to one of 
these parties, and went into Macedonia with his army. Here he 
gradually got involved deeper and deeper in the quarrel, and he 
continued in the country for several years. At last, when he was 
beginning to get tired of this, a circumstance occurred which led 
him to conceive the idea of crossing over the sea into Italy, and 
making war upon the Roman empire. 

In lohat ])eriocl of the history of Rome was it that Pyrrhus 
formed his design of invading Italy f 

This was during the time that E-ome was governed by consuls, 
and between two and three hundred years after the consular gov- 
ernment commenced. 



112 PYERHUS, KING OF EPIRUS. 

Where was Tarentmnf What were the circumstances thai 
induced the Tarentines to invite Pyrrhus to come to their coun- 
try f 

If you look upon the map* you will see that just in the hollow 
of the foot of Italy there is a round gulf, called the Gulf of Ta- 
rentum, and that at the head of this gulf stands the city of Taren- 
tum. Now the Komans, in the time of Pyrrhus, had extended 
their dominions over all that part of Italy, except that they had 
not yet been able to subdue the people of Tarentum. They were 
now, however, drawing very near to this city, and the Tarentines 
were in great alarm. They had heard of Pyrrhus, and of his fame 
as a warrior. They knew, too, that he liked war, and was willing 
to fight in other people's quarrels when he had none of Iiis own ; 
so they concluded to send to him to come to Tarentum and assist 
them. Tliey said that they would put all their armies under his 
command if he would do so. 

What argument loas offered at Tarentum against giving Pyr- 
rhus this invitation? 

Some of the more considerate and far-sighted of the people of 
Tarentum were altogether opposed to sending for Pyrrhus in this 
way. " Depend upon it," said they, " that if we send for such a 
man as he to come among us, and put our troops under his com- 
mand, he will make himself our master, and we shall be all his 
slaves ; and if we are going to submit ourselves to any other gov- 
ernment than our own, we may as well be under the Romans as 
under Pyrrhus." 

Hoio did tJie ]?eo2:>le finally decide? 

The people were so much alarmed at the danger from the Ro- 
mans that they would not listen to these counsels, and so, after 
many stormy and violent debates and discussions, it was decided 
to send to Pyrrhus to invite him to come, with a view of putting- 
all their forces under his command. 

* See page 110. 



PYERHUS, KING OF EPIRUS. 113 

Describe the arrangements of the expedition. 

As soon as it was known that Pyrrlius was going to embark in 
this enterprise, great numbers of men in Epirus volunteered to join 
Iiim, and he soon collected a very large army. He also caused a 
great number of galleys to be built or purchased, in order to trans- 
port his troops and munitions of war. As soon as a part of this 
fleet was ready, he sent forward a large detachment of his army ii i 
it, under the command of one of his generals. Pyrrhus himself 
followed a short time afterward with the remainder of the force, the 
vessels having been sent back for the purpose. His army consist- 
ed of twenty elephants, three thousand horse, twenty thousand foot, 
two thousand archers, and twenty thousand slingers. 

What disaster occurred at the outset? 

The enterprise commenced disastrously, for no sooner had Pyr- 
rhus set sail with his part of the army than a storm arose, and 
made sad havoc with the fleet. The vessels were dispersed in all 
directions, far and wide. The ship that Pyrrhus was in succeed- 
ed in getting pretty near the shore, but then the wind suddenly 
changed and threatened to drive it back to sea again. So Pyr- 
rhus leaped out into the water, and attempted to swim to shore? 
and many of his oflicers and attendants immediately jumped over- 
board too, to assist him. They all came very near being drowned, 
though at last, after being dashed about mercilessly for some time 
by the waves, they succeeded in reaching the land. 

What i^ortion of the ex2?editio7i ivas saved f 

Some of the other ships, too, succeeded in eflfecting a landing at 
different parts of the coast, but when Pyrrhus collected his forces 
together again, he found that there was but a very small part of 
the original number remaining. Of his twenty elephants there 
were only two left. The rest had all been drowned. 

What course of procedure did Pyrrhus adopt ichen he reach- 
ed Tarentum? 

Pyrrhus, however, nothing daunted, proceeded to Tarentum, and, 

H 



114 PYEKHUS, KING OF EriRUS. 

entering it with great pomp, lie immediately took possession of all 
the departments of the government just as if he were the natural 
and proper king of the country. He found the people in a great 
state of alarm and confusion, but he soon reduced things to order. 
He strengthened the walls and gates, and organized the garrison, 
and adopted a very strict system of rules and regulations for the 
government of the city. 

How soon did he hear neios of the llomans^ and lohat did he 
then do f 

While he was engaged in these operations, the news came that 
the Eoman army was approaching, under the command of one of 
the consuls. The consul's name was Leevinus. Pyrrhus march- 
ed out to meet them. After advancing some days he came into 
the neighborhood of the encampment, and then, watching for a 
favorable opportunity, taking Avith him a suitable guard, he went 
out to reconnoitre. 

Describe the general arrangements of a Roman encamjp^nent. 

Nothing could be more completely systematized and arranged 
than the Roman encampments of those days. The tents were dis- 
posed in rows, like the buildings of a town, with streets between. 
The place chosen was usually a spot of level ground on the banks 
of a river or other stream, for it was necessary to have abundant 
supplies of water for the army close at hand. The camp was 
generally square, the streets crossing each other at right angles, 
and it was surrounded by an embankment which served the pur- 
pose of a wall. Tliere were gateways through this embankment, 
with roads leading from them down to the water. 

What impression ivas made u2)on Pyrrhus' s viind by the sight 
of the encampment f 

At the time that Pyrrhus went out to reconnoitre the position 
of the Romans, he found them encamped on the banks of the River 
Siris, which you will find laid down on the map not far from Ta- 
rentum. He was very much struck with the magnificence of the 



PYERHUS, KING OF EPIRUS. 



115 




PYRRHUb VIEWING THE ROMA^ ENCAMlMLNf 



spectacle, and began to think that he had a much more formida- 
ble enemy to contend with than he had at first supposed. 

IIoio did the Romans cross the river f 

He, however, prepared for battle, and very soon the Eoman army 
marched across the river and attacked him. They came across in 
three bodies, holding their shields over tlieir heads as they waded 
through the water. The divisions looked like immense animals 
covered with scales. 

Describe the stratagem that Pyrrhus resorted to 07i the day of 
the battle. What was the consequence of it f 

Pyrrhus was accustomed, when on the field of battle, to wear a 
gay and beautiful suit of armor, which made him very conspicuous 
among the other generals ; but in this instance, just before the bat- 
tle commenced, he changed his dress with one of liis officers named 
Megacles, and, in consequence of this, the enemy supposed that 
Megacles was Pyrrhus, and so, whenever they saw him, they press- 



116 



PYERHUS, KlXa OF EPIRUS. 




DISPLAY OF THE AUMOR. 



ed upon him with great fury, and finally they killed him. They of 

course thought 
it was Pyrrhus 
that was killed, 
so they took off 
his armor and 
carried it about 
the ranks, witb 
music and ban- 
ners, in token of 
triumph. This 
produced a very 
"i, encouraging ef- 
fect on the Ro- 
mans, and, as a 

consequence, greatly discouraged the Tarentines, for they too, for 
a time, supposed that Pyrrhus was killed. The effect was so 
great, that at length, in order to correct the mistake, Pyrrhus was 
obliged to ride along the ranks of his army w^ith his head uncov- 
ered, calling out at the same time to the men every where to look 
at him, and see that he was still alive. 
What loas the result of the battle f 

At length, after a long and obstinate contest, the Romans were 
defeated. The victory was owing, in a great measure, to the ele- 
phants. The Roman horses were terrified at the sight of such 
huge beasts, and they fled from before them in dismay, trampling 
down the troops under their feet, and producing dreadful confu- 
sion and slaughter. 

What were the consequences of this victory f Why was not 
peace 7ioio inade f 

This victory made Pyrrhus master of the eastern part of Italy, 
and, on reflection, he concluded to be satisfied with that, and so 
he sent an embassador to Rome to propose peace; but the Ro- 



PYRRHUS, KING OF EPIRUS. 117 

mans said that they would not listen to any proposals of peace 
while Pyrrhus remained in the country. So the embassador came 
back, and both parties prepared again for war. 

Hoio did the Roma7is attempt to defend themselves from the 
elephants in the second battle f 

After some time another great battle was fought. This time 
the Eomans were prepared for the elephants. They came on 
against them with chariots armed with long spears, that projected 
forward very far from the pole, so as to pierce the elephants be- 
fore they could come near. They also had blazing torches to wave 
in the air, and firebrands to throw at the huge beasts, in order to 
frighten them. In this way they drove many of them back, but 
still they could not entirely subdue them. 
What VMS the residt f 

The battle ended doubtfully. Both parties withdrew at the 
end of it to their camps, and remained there for some time, not 
knowing w^hat to do next. 

Relate the story of Nicias, 

While things were in this state, Pyrrhus's physician, whose 
name was Nicias, went secretly to the Poman camp, and offered 
for a bribe to poison Pyrrhus. Instead of accepting this offer, the 
consul seized the traitor and sent him in chains to Pyrrhus, with 
a letter explaining to Pyrrhus the atrocious proposal the man had 
made. Pyrrhus was very much struck w4th the generosity of this 
act, and, as an acknowledgment of it, he immediately sent the 
Eomans all the prisoners that he had taken in the battle. 

Relate the sequel of the history of Pyrrhus. 

After this Pyrrhus continued for some time in Italy, and the 
war, though it turned occasionally in his favor, was more frequent- 
ly against him. At length he was driven back to Tarentum, and, 
finally, he concluded to withdraw from the country altogether, 
leaving all Italy under the Roman dominion. He carried on sev- 
eral other wars after this in various countries, being always ready 



118 



PYEKHUS, KING OF EPIRUS. 



to go whenever he was called, to light in anj body's quarrels, no 
matter who they might be. 

Describe the cii'cumstances of his death. 

At last he found his way into Greece, and there, while he was 
lighting in the streets of the city of Argos, a woman, whose son 



\^^;, , 






At 




DEATH OF PYRRHUS. 



he had killed, threw a tile down upon him from the top of a bouse 



THE CARTHAGINIxVNS AND HANNIBAL. 119 

as she saw him going by. The tile struck him on his head, and 
felled him from his horse. He lay there helpless upon the ground 
for a little time, nobody knowing who he was. At length a sol- 
dier came by, and, having stopped to look at him, and finding it 
was Pyrrhus, he cut off his head. 
What ivas Pyrrhus' s chaixtcter f 

Thus ended the life of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, one of the most 
celebrated warriors of ancient times ; a man who seemed to love 
fighting for its own sake, and who was always ready to engage in 
any quarrel just for the sake of the excitement and pleasure of war. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

THE CARTHAGINIANS AND HANNIBAL. 

What was the situation of ancient Carthage ? 

Soon after the time of Pyrrhus, the Romans encountered anoth- 
er still more formidable foe in Hannibal the Carthaginian. Car- 
thage was a great city that had been gradually growing up in Af- 
rica, on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea, while Rome had been 
rising to power and wealth in Italy. Thus Rome and Carthage 
were rivals. 

What ivere the 2)'i^i'>'^cij}al jpicrsuits of the Carthagbmms? 

There was this difierence between the two cities, namely, that 
Rome was an interior town, and it was maintained at first by the 
agriculture of the surrounding country, while Carthage, on the 
other hand, was a commercial town, and the people lived by buy- 
ing and selling merchandise. The merchants of Carthage owned 
a great many ships, and they sent their ships all over the Medi- 
terranean Sea, buying and selling goods in different countries, and 
making a profit on all their trade, so that, at length, they became 
very wealthy, and their wealth made them very powerful. They 
built fleets, they hired large bodies of soldiers, they established 



120 THE CAKTHAGINIANS AND HANNIBAL. 

colonies along the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea — they became, 
in fine, a great maritime power. 

How was the city of Carthage originally founded f 

The Carthaginians came originally from Tyre. Tyre was one 
of the cities of Phoenicia, a country on the eastern shores of the 
Mediterranean Sea. Phoenicia was one of the earliest countries 
that were settled by man, the Phoenicians being known in history 
from a period almost as remote as the Assyrians and Babylonians ; 
but, living as they did on the borders of the sea, they were natu- 
rally the first to learn the art of building ships and of navigating 
them, and, in process of time, they established ports and colonies 
in various parts of the Mediterranean Sea, in order to enable them 
the better to carry on their commerce. Carthage was One of these 
colonies ; and when at last Tyre w^as taken, and in a great meas- 
ure destroyed by Alexander, as has already been related, Carthage 
took its place, and became the greatest mart of commerce in the 
world. 

For how long a period did the wars hetioee7i the Romans and 
Carthaginians continue f 

This was the origin of Carthage ; and while she was gradually 
growing up to power and greatness, Rome w^as growing up too, so 
that at length the two powers began, here and there, to come into 
collision, and at last they came to open and general war. The 
wars between Rome and Carthage continued about one hundred 
years, with varying success during the continuance of them, but 
at last Carthage was vanquished, and then, by order of the Ro- 
man government, the city was entirely destroyed. 

By what 7iame are these wars known in history f 

The Avars between Rome and Carthage are known in history as 
the Punic wars. Punic means Carthaginian. 

What was the character of the first Punic war f Which 2:>arty 
loas successful at first at sea? 

In the first Punic war the contest was chiefly on the sea. The 



THE CARTHAGINIANS AND HANNIBAL. 



121 



difficulty commenced in Sicily ; but at length the Romans, find- 
ing that the Carthaginians possessed a powerful fleet, concluded 
that conqu-ering them on land was not enough, so they determined 
to build a fleet too, and attack them at sea. They did this, and, 
to the surprise of all the world, they were successful. The Car- 
thaginian fleet was defeated, and almost entirely destroyed. 

W/iat measure did the Romans then determine ujpon ? Who 
commanded the Roinan army ? 

The Romans then determined to carry the war into Africa— that 
is, to send an army across the sea, and attack the Carthaginians 

in their own city. 



The consul's name 
Vvlio had command 
of the Roman ar- 
mies in this cam- 
paign was Regu- 
lus, who has made 
his name renown- 
ed in all ages by 
the noble fortitude 
and magnanimity 
which he exhibited 
in exposing him- 
self to the severest 
privations and suf- 
ferings rather than 
be faithless to his 
duty. Regulus took command of the army and proceeded to Africa. 
How did the campaign of Regulus end? 
He was not successful in his campaign in Africa. He triumph- 
ed over the Carthaginians for a time, it is true, and advanced 
with his armies very near to Carthage ; but then a large body of 
Greeks came to the aid of the Carthaginians, and this turned the 




ilTVATION OF CARTHAGE. 



122 THE CARTHAGINIANS AND HANNIBAI.. 

scale. The Roman army was defeated, and Regulus was taken 
prisoner. 

IV/iat did the Carthaginians finally resolve to do with Reg- 
ulus ? 

Tlie Carthaginians were of course overjoyed at the result. For 
a time they scarcely knew what to do with their captive. Finally 
they conceived the idea of sending him to Rome, to propose con- 
ditions of peace with the Romans, under a promise that if he did 
not succeed he would come back to Carthage again, and surrender 
himself into their hands. 

Iloitj did the Carthaginians reason among themselves in re- 
8i)ect to the mission of Regulus? 

"He will certainly do all in his power to make peace," said 
they, " as that will be the only means by which he can escape a 
miserable captivity. As to his coming back to us, we can trust 
to his word.*' 

Describe the progress and result of Regulus^ s mission. 

Regulus proceeded to Rome. He laid there the Carthaginian 
proposal before the senate and people, but, instead of urging 
them to make peace, he strongly recommended them not to do so. 
He thought it was best that the war should be carried on. The 
Romans decided, therefore, not to make peace ; but they declared 
to Regulus that he was not under any obligation to return to 
Carthage, and tried to persuade him to remain at Rome. But he 
would not. He had promised, he said, and he would not break 
his word. They told him that it was a promise extorted ; it was 
given Avhen he was not free, and he was under no obligation to 
keep it. But all had no eifect. Regulus insisted on returning ; 
and, when he arrived among the Carthaginians, they were so en- 
raged with him for not making peace, that they put him to death 
with the most cruel tortures. They knew that the embassage 
failed on account of the influence which Regulus himself exerted 
on the minds of his countrymen. 



THE CARTHAGINIANS AND HANNIBAL. 123 

To what has the great celebrity of the Hainan name,, in the 
o^pinion of mankind^ been in a great measure owing ? 

It was in a great measure owing to this spirit of firm, inflexi- 
ble, and uncompromising adherence to right and to duty, whicli 
was so often manifested by the generals, and statesmen, and sol- 
diers of Rome, that the Roman name acquired so great celebrity 
throughout the world. 

^Yhat course did the tear take after the death of Ilegulus f 

After the death of Regulus, the war continued seven or eight 
years, and then, both parties becoming weary of the contest, a sort 
of peace was made, though there was still no cordial good-will be- 
tween the countries. This peace, however, such as it was, lasted 
about a quarter of a century. Then war broke out again. This 
was the second Punic war, and in the course of it the Roman pow- 
er was brought into very great danger. 

Who was the great hero of the second Punic war ? Who was 
his father ? 

The great hero of this second Punic war was the celebrated 
Hannibal. He was the son of a Carthaginian general who had 
commanded in Spain ; for the Carthaginians had colonized in va- 
rious places along the shores of i\\Q jMediterranean Sea, and one 
of their most important colonies was in Spain. They had gold 
and silver mines there. 

Where and how did the Romans and Carthaginians first come 
into collision f 

The Romans had extended their dominion also into Spain, hav- 
ing fought their way round into that country through France by 
land ; so the frontiers of the two countries came together there. 
The River Ebro, or, as it was then called, the Iberus, was the 
boundary. Hannibal's father was in command on the Carthagin- 
ian side of the Ebro, and when his son Hannibal, who was a re- 
markably talented and energetic young man, grew up, he sent to 
Carthage to have him appointed second in command. 



124 THE CARTHAGINIANS AND HANNIBAL. 

How was it that Hannibal came to have the command of the 
army? What was the first measure that he adopted? 

After some debates and difficulties, this was accomplished, and 
Hannibal went to Spain. Soon after this, HannibaFs father died. 
Hannibal was then, of course, first in command, and he soon con- 
ceived the design of crossing the Iberus and attacking Saguntum, 
a city near the frontiers, which, though it was not actually a pos- 
session of the Romans, was still their confederate and ally. The 
Romans warned him not to do it. He, however, would not desist. 
He attacked Saguntum, captured and plundered it, and thus Rome 
and Carthage were again brought into a state of open war. 

What was the character of Hannibal at this time ? 

Hannibal was at this time a very young man, and, though he 
was sedate in his manners, simple and unostentatious in his pre- 
tensions, and very calm and quiet in all his demeanor, he was still 
filled with a spirit of the most exalted enterprise and ambition. 

What bold design did Hanyiibal now form f What were the 
difficulties to be encountered? 

He immediately conceived the very bold design of collecting a 
very great army, and marching round into Italy through Switzer- 
land, and so coming down upon the city of Rome itself from the 
north. In doing this he knew that there were almost insurmount- 
able difficulties to encounter. Not only was the distance very 
great, but there were wide rivers and lofty mountains in the way 
— rivers so wide and mountains so high that most persons would 
have deemed it impossible to have transported so great an army 
through that region of country. Hannibal, however, resolved upon 
the undertaking ; so, after having made all possible preparations, 
he commenced his march. 

What teas the difficulty in respect to crossing the Rhone ? 

One of the first great difficulties which he encountered was the 
Rhone. His course was such that he was obliged to cross this 
river at its widest and deepest part. There was not so much dif- 



THE CARTHAGINIANS AND HANNIBAL. 125 

liculty in respect to the men and the horses, but he had a large 
number of elephants in his army, and the greatest question was 
how to contrive a mode for getting these monstrous animals across. 
There was no other way but to build a great raft and float them 
over. 

Describe the mode which he adojpted of transjporting the el- 
ephants across the river. 

He set his army at work to cut down trees in the woods along 
the banks of the river, and to make a raft of them. This raft 
was of an enormous size ; and in order that the elephants might 
not be afraid to go on it, he caused it to be covered with earth, 
turf, and bushes, so as to make it look like the natural ground. 
When the raft was finished it was brought up by the shore, and 
the elephants were led upon it, and so floated over. 

What vjas the behavior of the elephants tqjon the raft ? 

The elephants were easily induced to walk out upon the raft 
while it remained moored to the shore, for it was made to resemble 
very closely a portion of the solid ground. But as soon as the 
raft was separated from the shore, and the elephants perceived that 
it was in motion, they became greatly alarmed, and began imme- 
diately to look anxiously this way and that, and to crowd toward 
the edges of the floating mass which was conveying them away. 
Here they found that they were hemmed in by the water on every 
side, and they w^ere terrified and thrown into confusion. Some 
of them were crowded ofi" into the river, and were drifted down by 
the current, until at length they landed below. The rest soon be- 
came calm when they found that all hope of escape was vain, and, 
resigning themselves to their fate, allowed themselves to be quiet- 
ly ferried across the river. The raft was towed by boats prece- 
ding it, which were propelled by oars. 

What were the difficulties to be encouiitered in passing the 
Alps? 

At last Hannibal came to Switzerland and the Alps. The dif- 



126 THE CARTHAGINIANS AND HANNIBAL. 

ficulties of getting liis army over the wild and snowy passes of 




CROSSING THE ALPt 



these mountains were immense. All the roads, of course, were to 
be made, and this required bridges to be built over torrents and 
ravines, and precipices to be walled up, and rocks to be split and 
moved out of the way. When the army reached tlie liigher Alps, 
too, they encountered great difficulty on account of the snow. A 
violent storm arose and nearly overwiielmed them. The poor 
elephants, particularly, were amazed at the spectacle, and it was 
with great difficulty that they could be induced to go forward at all. 

Deso'ibe the 2:)7'ospect that oj^eiied before them when they reach- 
ed the southern hrow of the inountains. 

At length, however, the army came out upon the brow of the 
mountains that was toward Italy, and then they saw stretched out 
before them a vast extent of rich and fertile country. They de- 



THE CAETHAGINIANS AND HANNIBAL. 127 

scended the mountains, and, after encamping a while for rest and 
refreshment on the ph\in, they moved on toward Rome. 

W/iat loas the general course of the ivar after Hannibal reach- 
cd Italy ? 

The Romans came out with an immense army, under the com- 
mand of the consuls, to meet them. Battle after battle was fought, 
and many victories were gained, now on one side and now on the 
other. The war continued sixteen or seventeen years, during all 
which time Hannibal advanced nearer to Rome, supporting his 
army in the mean while by the plunder of the provinces which he 
conquered. 

Where was the great battle fought ? What was the result of 'it f 

There was one celebrated battle fought at a place called Cannse. 
Hannibal gained a great victory here, so great that the battle of 
Caniaa3 has since been as renowned as any of the greatest conflicts 
of ancient times. The Romans, after the battle of Cannae, were in 
the utmost alarm, exj^ecting that Hannibal would come immedi- 
ately, and storm and plunder the city. But he did not come. 

Who VMS finally a])pointed general over the Itomansf How 
did the exjyedition end f 

At length the tide of victory seemed gradually to turn in favor 
of the Romans. A Roman general named Scipio arose, who was 
far more successful than any of those who had gone before him. 
The Carthaginian army gradually wasted away. They were beat- 
en in one contest after another, until at length the people of Car- 
thage, becoming dissatisfied with the course which Hannibal's af- 
fairs were taking, sent an order for his recall. He was in a dread- 
ful rage when he received this order, but he was obliged to obey. 

What exjpedition was next undertaken by the liomans f What 
was the success of it ? 

But the Romans were not satisfied with thus expelling Hanni- 
bal from Italy. They sent a large army, under the command of 
Scipio, into Africa, and there waged war against Carthage so sue- 



128 



POMPEY AND C^SAR. 



cessMly that the city was in imminent danger of falling into 
Scipio's hands. To save themselves from utter ruin, the Cartha- 
ginians were compelled to make peace on Scipio's own terms. 
One of the conditions was that they should give up their ships 
and galleys, and Sci])io burned the whole fleet in sight of the city. 




SCIPIO BURNING THE CARTHAGINIAN FLEET. 



How long did the jyeace last? 

The peace that was made at this time lasted about fifty years. 
Another war then broke out, which, however, lasted only a very 
short time, and at the end of it Carthage was totally destroyed. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

POMPEY AND C^SAR. 

What teas the poiver that filially supplanted that of the con- 
sids in the government of Home ? 

The consular power in the Roman republic, after enduring for 



POMPEY AND CESAR. 129 

SO many hundred years, was overshadowed and lost in a liigher 
power, which gradually rose up and superseded it. This other 
power was the authority of the great military commanders that 
were produced by the Eoman system, and who, in process of time, 
came to acquire so great an influence and ascendency as to bring 
all the civil departments of the state into subjection to them. 
Havino- legions of armed men under their command, they had 
power, of course, to do any thing they pleased. 

Describe the effects that were produced hij the rivalries of these 
commanders. 

Sometimes two or more of these great commanders would arise 
at the same time, in different parts of the Eoman dominions ; for 
by tliis time the Roman power had extended over almost the 
whole of Europe, and over all the western part of Asia, and the 
northern part of Africa. In such cases as this, the rivals would 
quarrel with each other, and sometimes produce great devastation 
in different parts of the empire by the civil wars which they would 
incite. 

What were the two most consjncitous examples of this rivalry f 

The first great case of this kind was that of Marius and Sylla. 
They kept all Italy, and Kome itself, in a state of great alarm 
and distress for many years with their dreadful quarrels. They 
had each succeeded in placing themselves at the head of immense 
armies, and the people could not displace them. The next great 
case of this kind was that of Pompey and Caesar. These generals 
both acquired a great military reputation, each in his own quarter 
of the world, and then they came together at Eome, and quarreled 
to see Avho should be master there. 

Describe the early career of Coesar. 

Csesar acquired his power by his services in the northern part 
of the empire — in Switzerland, France, and Germany. After hav- 
ing conquered these countries, he fitted out an expedition from 
France, or Gaul as it was then called, for an invasion of Britain. 

I 



130 



POMPEY AND C^SAE, 




CiESAR'S INVASION OF BKXTAIN. 



This enterprise, too, was successful, and the Britons, though not 
wholly subdued, were still, in a great measure, brought under the 
Roman dominion. The particulars of this invasion, and of the 
events which followed it, will be related more particularly in the 
Story of English History. 

What measures did Ccesar adopt while absent at the 7iorthfor 
strengthe7ii7ig his influence at Rome f 

While C^sar remained in his province at the north, he was still 
all the time engaged in strengthening, by means of his agents, his 
influence at Rome, and increasing his party there. He was pos- 
sessed of great wealth, and he employed this wealth in giving en- 
tertainments to the people of the higher ranks, and in arranging 
games and celebrations to please the lower classes. Pompey, the 
rival general, who had acquired his fame and power with other 
armies and in other provinces, was doing the same thing. Thus 



POMPEY AND C^SAE. 131 

both had their partisans at the capital, and each was striving with 
all his power to overbear the influence of the other. 
What hold design did Cmswr finally adopt? 

At length Ca3sar, finding that there was danger that Pompey's 
party would become the stronger, conceived the daring design of 
marching with his army to Eome. This would, of course, be in 
violation of law, for no general could leave his province, especially 
with his army, without orders from the senate. 

What were his thoughts in the prospect of crossing the Ruhi- 
con f 

The river which formed the boundary of the province toward 
Rome was the E-ubicon. Ca?sar advanced to the bank of this 
stream, and paused for some time, hesitating whether to take the 
fatal step. "If I cross this stream," said he, "the die will be 
cast. I must then make myself master of the Roman empire, or 
else perish." 

He stood thus for some time on the shore of the river, musing 
upon the greatness of the undertaking in which the act of passing 
across it would involve him. His officers stood by his side. 
"We can go back now," said he, " if we will, but if we once cross 
this little stream it will be too late to retreat. We must then go 
on, and conquer or be destroyed." 

What was his decision ? 

He determined at length to cross the stream. When this de- 
cision was once taken, there was no longer any faltering. He put 
his whole army in motion, and marched directly toward Rome. 
He was very popular with his soldiers, and they followed him with 
great alacrity. The people of the country, too, as he advanced 
along the road, generally espoused his cause. 

Describe the effects produced at Rome by the news that he wab 
coming. 

Of course, the news of his approach produced the greatest pos~ 
sible excitement in Rome. Armed men assembled in great num- 



132 POMPEY AND C^SAE. 

bers in the public places in the city, and discussed earnestly and 




EXCITEMENT IN ROME. 



eagerly the question what was to be done. Some were for re- 
ceiving him, others were for resisting him. 

What course did Pom/pey adopt f 

Pompey exerted himself to the utmost to quell the alarm, and 
to induce the government to take a decided stand against the rebel. 
"' We have nothing to fear from him," said he. " I can raise men 
enough by stamping my foot to put him down." 

Relate ivhat occurred when Cmsar dreio nigh to the city? 
What became of Pompey f 

Pompey soon found, however, that the current was likely to turn 
against him. The approach of Caesar at the head of such an 
army, all enthusiastically devoted to his interests, encouraged his 



POMPEY AND C^SAR. 133 

friends and intimidated his enemies. Those who had been most 
opposed to him fled from the city. Every one who went made the 
case more hopeless for those that remained. At last Pompey him- 
self, taking with him a few of his most resolute adherents, set off 
secretly at^'night, and traveled with all dispatch to Bmndusium, the 
port of embarkation for Macedon and Greece. He was intending 
to cross over to his own provinces, in order to raise an army and 
prepare for war. ^ 

Did Ccesarjmrsiie Pom])ey f What occurred at Brundimmn / 
Ca3sar followed him. He reached Brundusium before Pompey 
had left it ; but Pompey succeeded in making his escape by era- 
barking in the night, with all the forces that he had collected, not- 
withstanding all that Caesar could do to prevent him. 

When Ccesar found that Pompey had escajjed beyond sea, what 

did he do f 

Cffisar then went back to Eome, determining to take full posses- 
sion of the government there, and then pursue Pompey at his lei- 
sure. He entered the city at the head of his troops, and assumed 
at once the general direction of public affairs. 
Eelate what occurred at the treasury. 

He summoned the treasurer to deliver to him the keys of the 
treasury. The officer replied that it was contrary to law for him 
to enter. Caesar said that for men with swords in their hands 
there was no law, and added, that if the officer did not admit him, 
he would kill him on the spot. "And you may rely upon it, 
he added, ''that it is easier for me to do it than to say it." 
What tvas the result of the affair f 

The officer yielded, and Caesar took possession of the treasury. 
How soon did Gmsar resiime his operations against Pompey? 
For some months Csesar was occupied,' in Italy and the neigh- 
boring provinces, subduing opposition, and extending and confirm^ 
ing his power. Then he marched toward the Adriatic to renew 
his contest with Pompey. 



134 POMPEY AND C^.SAE. 

How had Pompey been employed i?i the mean time f 

In the mean time, Pompey had been diligently employed in 
gathering an immense force in Maeedon and Greece, and had drawn 
them up on the shores opposite Brundusium. The attention of the 
whole Koman world was directed to the scene, all anxiously await- 
ing the result of the conflict. 

When was the great final battle fought ? What was the re- 
sidt of it f 

Notwithstanding all Pompey's efforts to prevent it, Cassar suc- 
ceeded in crossing the Adriatic with his troops, and then, after a 
succession of movements, evolutions, and manoeuvres, in the prog- 
ress of which the two armies traversed the country southward as 
far as Thessaly, they came to a halt on a plain in Thessaly, called 
the Plain of Pharsalia, and here fought a great battle. It was a 
most desperate and terrible conflict. Pompey was entirely defeat- 
ed. His army was driven ofli" in all directions, liis camp was bro- 
ken up, his tents torn down, plundered, and trampled under foot, 
and he himself was compelled to fly from the field, accompanied 
with very few attendants, and in a state of the greatest distress 
and terror. 

Narrate the particulars of Pompey'' s flight. 

As soon as he had got beyond the limits of the field, he turned 
aside, and continued his flight, through forests and solitudes, to- 
ward the sea-shore. He reached it at length, and found refuge 
for the night in a fisherman's cabin. The next morning he em- 
barked in a little boat, and the boatmen rowed him along the shore 
until they came in sight of a merchant vessel which was about to 
sail from the coast. Pompey was taken on board. The captain 
of the vessel received the distinguished fugitive, when he learned 
who he was, with the utmost kindness and consideration. 

How xoas it that he finally obtained a coinpany of followers 
again f 

In this vessel Pompey sailed along, touching at various points 



POMPEY AND C^SAR. 135 

on the coasts and islands of the Mediterranean, and summoning 
his friends every where to come to his aid. A considerable num- 
ber responded to this appeal, and joined him. Some brought 
ships with them, and so, in time, he had quite a little fleet. StiU 
he went on, and many and anxious were the consultations and 
debates which he held with his friends on the question where it 
would be best to go. 

BelaU the circumstances of Pompey's meeting wit/i his wije 

at Lesbos. 

■ On his way to Egypt, Pompey stopped to have an interview 
with his wife Cornelia at the island of Lesbos, where he had sent 
her for safety. Cornelia came on board her husband's vessel, and 
resolved to accompany him, and share his fortunes, whatever they 
mio'ht be. She was a very faithful and devoted wife, and was also 
a very resolute woman. Her presence and her counsels greatly 
encouraged and strengthened her husband. 

^YheTe did Pom])ey finally decide to go, and why? 
At length it was decided to go to Egypt. Ptolemy, the then 
king of Egypt, had been Pompey's friend, and so Pompey thought 
that he would receive and protect him. 

What advice did Ptolemy's counselors give ichen they heard 
that Pompey was coming f ^13,1 

When, however, the little fleet drew nigh the coast, and ii'toi- 
emy heard that it was coming, his counselors advised him that the 
best thing he could do would be to entice Pompey to the shore, 
and then kill him as soon as he landed. By this they thoug^it 
they should please Ca3sar, who was now likely to become the 
master of the world. 

HoiD did the case finally end? 

The king acceded to this plan. He sent men Avho induced 
Pompey to come on shore from his galley in a boat, and then, as 
soon as he disembarked, an assassin, whom they had provided lor 
the purpose, stabbed him, and he feU dead upon the sand. 



136 



POMPEY AND C^SAE. 



^^^^-ssa^9» 







ASSASSINATION OF POMPEY 



Li what manner did they announce the death of Poiiipey to 
Ccesar f 

The murderers of Pompey then cut off his head in order to send 
it as a present to Caesar. 

Hoio did Ccesar receive the tidings ? 

When the dreadful trophy was sent to Caesar, instead of being- 
pleased with it, he was filled with indignation, and turned away 
from the spectacle in sorrow and tears. He afterward did every 
thing in his power to render honor to his great rival's memory. 

What are the princijjal particulars of Ccesar's subsequent 
history f 

Caesar, who had followed Pompey into Egypt, remained some 
time there, and then returned to Rome. He was now firmly es- 
tablished as the supreme magistrate of Rome. He did not call 
himself king, for the Romans, ever since the expulsion of Tarquin, 



POMPEY AND C^SAR. 137 



could never endure the name of king. So he styled himself E, 
peror^ which means commander. The word, in the language of 
that country, is Imperator. His successors in this office took the 
same title, and they are called collectively, in history, the Eoman 
Emperors. Eome continued under the government of the emper- 
ors for several hundred years after the time of C^sar. 

What ivas the character of Ccesar's government f 

Csesar exercised his government, in many respects, exceedingly 
well. He arranged and systematized every thing throughout the 
empire, and advanced the Roman commonwealth to the highest 
summit of its greatness and power. He made excellent laws, and 
established wise and beneficent institutions ; he planned and exe- 
cuted many vast and magnificent schemes of public improvement, 
and corrected an infinite number of abuses in the government, and 
in a thousand ways improved the administration of public affairs. 

Describe the manner in vjhich he was accustomed to return 
from his military expeditions. 

From time to time, he went away on military expeditions and 
campaigns, to quell insurrections, or to subdue some intractable 
province. In returning to Rome at the close of these campaigns, 
he usually entered the city in a triumphal car, at the head of great 
processions, arranged with all possible pomp and parade. On these 
occasions he caused to be carried in the procession trophies of the 
victories he had achieved. These trophies consisted of flags and 
banners taken from the enemy ; vessels of gold and silver, and 
other treasures, loaded in vans ; or captives taken in battle, some 
conveyed in carriages, and some marching sorrowfully on foot, des- 
tined, perhaps, to public execution when the ceremony of the tri- 
umph was ended ; displays of arms, and implements, and dresses, 
and all else which might serve to give the Roman crowd an idea 
of the customs of the conquered nations ; and, lastly, specimens of 
the animals that they used, caparisoned in the manner in which the 
foreign nation used them. One of these processions was so long 



138 



POMPEY AND C^SAR. 




THE TKIUMPHAL PROCESSION. 



that it was four days in entering the city, and on one of the even- 
ings of these days there were forty elephants in the line, bearing 
torches to light the way. 

What VMS the end of Ccesar f 

At length a conspiracy was formed against Cassar, and he was 
stabbed in the senate-house in open day, and thus his life was 
brought to a sudden and dreadful end. The name of the person 
who stabbed him was Brutus, though there were other persons 
who were joined with him in the conspiracy. They all gloried in 
the deed when it was done. 

Thus in Julius Ctesar, as well as in multitudes of others like 
him, were fulfilled the words of Jesus Christ, " They that take the 
sword shall perish by the sword." 



EGYPT. 139 



CHAPTER XY. 

EGYPT. 



Describe the situation of Egyjpt. 

The country of Egypt — a long and very narrow valley, fertilized 
by the waters of the Nile — was extremely fruitful, and it seems to 
have been one of the very earliest portions of the earth that was 
settled by man. Lying, however, as it does, in a remote and se- 
cluded position, it was very little connected with the rest of the 
world until the time of the Romans, so that little is known of its 
history by any of the ordinary channels until a comparatively late 
period. The attention of the world was turned toward Egypt par- 
ticularly on the occasion when Julius Caesar went there in pursuit 
of Pompey, for he remained some time in the country on that oc- 
casion, and took an active part in the government of it, as we shall 
presently see. 

For what is Egypt now chiefly remarhable f 

Egypt is more remarkable than any other country for the im- 
mense and extremely ancient architectural remains which are found 
there. The great edifices of Nineveh and Babylon, having been 
built of mud bricks, have long since gone to decay ; but those of 
Egypt were built of the hardest stone, and they were of the most 
colossal size too, and were constructed in the most substantial 
manner. They have, therefore, endured to the present day. 

Which are the most reinarkahle of these structures f 

The most remarkable of these structures are the pyramids, which 
were built, as is supposed, for tombs, by the ancient kings. There 
are about forty of them in all, standing in different groups in the 
middle portion of the valley of the Nile. They are of various 
sizes, though the form and the proportions of them are in all cases 
the same. 



140 



EGYPT. 




THE PYRAMIDS OF EGYPT. 



What appearance do the pyramids present when seen at a dis- 
tance ? 

Seen in the distance, they look like peaked mountains rising 
from a sandy plain. 

What is hioivn in respect to the origin of the pyramids f 

It has always been a great mystery what these pyramids were 
built for, as no account of the origin of them, nor even scarcely any 
tradition respecting them, has come down to us. In the most an- 
cient times of which we have any recorded information, travelers 
and scholars visited Egypt, and found the pyramids there then, 
just as they are now, and the people who lived in the country then 
did not know, any more than they do now, who built them or what 
they built them for. 

What suppositions have been made to account for them? 

Some have supposed that they were temples consecrated to the 
sun, for many of those Eastern nations were accustomed to wor- 



EGYPT. 



141 



ship the sun as a god. Others have thought that they might 
have been designed as granaries, to store up supplies of grain ; but 
the prevaihng sentiment is, that thej were simply tombs or mau- 
soleums erected to perpetuate the memory of dead kings. 

What other 7'emarkahle monu7nents exist i?i Egyjpt f Describe 
the Sphinx. 

Among the other monuments of Egypt are a number of im- 
mense statues and images, one of the most remarkable of which 
is the Sphinx, a monstrous figure, sixty or seventy feet high, with 





t^r-if:^^^^ - 






THE SPHINX. 



the head of a woman and the body of a lion. What this means 
nobody knows ; though the Greeks had a story that such an an- 
imal as this lived in their country in very ancient times. It lived 
in a cave, and whenever it saw any body coming by, it would pro- 
pose a riddle to him. If the man guessed the riddle, then he was 



142 



EGYPT. 



allowed to go. If he could not guess it, then the Sphinx ran our 
upon him, seized him, and devoured him alive. 

Describe the statues of Memnon. 

There are in another part of Egypt two immense statues, called 
the statues of Memnon, standing alone on the plain. They are of 




THE STATUES OF MEMNON. 



Immense size, as you see by comparing the figures of the men 
with them in the engraving. The water of the Nile, from an in- 
undation, is spreading over the ground around the statues. They 
stand firmly in their places still, but, like the Sphinx, they are 
weather-beaten and time-worn, and all the distinct lineaments of 
the face are obliterated and gone. 

What is the reason why so little is hnown of the origin of 
these monuments f 

There are a great many other wonderful ruins and remains in 



EGYPT. 143 

Egypt, though very little is known of their origin, or of their char- 
acter and design. The reason of this is that the country, in its 
earliest ages, was so apart from the rest of the world in its isola- 
tion and seclusion, that its history did not become mingled and 
incorporated with that of other nations. Egypt had a language 
exclusively her own, the language of hieroglyphics. In tliis lan- 
guage her history was recorded on temples, obelisks, and monu- 
ments of every kind, and then the knowledge of this language was 
lost before the day when travelers and scholars from the rest of 
the world found their way into the valley. 

Is it possible to deci]?her any of these hieroglyphics f 

In modern times, the art of deciphering many of these hiero- 
glyphics has been discovered, and thus a great deal of information 
about the early history of the Egyptians has been obtained, though 
this information consists, after all, of little more than the names 
of the kings and the dates of their reigns. 

In what cases has Egy]jt been referred to before in this history? 

We have already related in the chapter on Darius how Cam- 
byses, the son of Cyrus, king of Persia, invaded Egypt, and brought 
it under the Persian sway. After this, Alexander the Great, when 
he conquered Persia, conquered Egypt too, as a part of the Persian 
dominion. You recollect that he passed on directly to Egypt im- 
mediately after the conquest of Tyre. It was then that he found- 
ed the city of Alexandria. At his death, when his empire was di- 
vided among his generals, Egypt fell to one of them named Ptol- 
emy, and from him sprang a line of kings called the Ptolemies, 
who governed Egypt for many years. 

Describe the character and doings of the Ptolemies. 

These Ptolemies were a very distinguished race of sovereigns. 
Being of Greek origin, they were very intelligent and able rulers. 
They greatly improved Alexandria, and made it a most powerful 
and wealthy city. As the land was low and level all along that 
coast, they built a very tall light-house on an island that formed 



144 EGYPT. 

part of the city. They carried this light-house up to a great el- 
evation, and they kept a bright light burning upon the top of it 
every night, and all night long, so that ships steering for Alexan- 
dria could see it at a great distance out to sea, and so easily find 
the way in. 

What contest was going on in Egypt ivhen Ccesai' came there 
in his pursuit of Pompey f 

When Caesar visited Egypt, there was prevailing there a con- 
test between Cleopatra the queen, and her brother, for possession of 
the kingdom. Cleopatra, whom Caesar assisted, as we shall see, in 
this contest to gain possession of the throne, was a princess in this 
royal line of Ptolemies. Indeed, her brother's name was Ptolemy. 

What did Ccesar do on his arrival in EgyjJt ? 

When Caesar arrived in Egypt in pursuit of Pompey, it was in 
Alexandria that he landed. He did not know to what part of the 
coast Pompey had gone, so he himself proceeded directly to the cap- 
ital. It was here that the new^s of Pompey's death came to him, 
accompanied by the head which the murderers sent him, as re- 
lated in the last chapter. 

Descrihe the course that he pursued in Alexandria, 

Caesar had landed in Alexandria with only a very small force, 
but he immediately established himself in one of the royal palaces, 
and assumed a very commanding tone and air, almost as if he were 
himself the sovereign of the country. Both Ptolemy and Cleopa- 
t;*a were then away, being at the head of their respective armies 
in the field. There was a governor, however, in Alexandria, whom 
Ptolemy had left in command there. His name was Pothinus. 
He was very much displeased with Caesar's conduct, and with the 
demands which he made upon him from time to time, but he did 
not think it prudent to quarrel with him openly. Cassar, however, 
expected that it would come to a quarrel in the end, and so he dis- 
patched a messenger to Rome, ordering them to send him a re-en- 
forcement of ships and troops as soon as possible. 



EGYPT. 145 

What was the effect produced upon the 7nindqf Cleopatra by 
Ccesar''s arrival ? 

In the mean time, Cleopatra, who was encamped near Pelusium 
at the time of Ca3sar's arrival, was very earnest to see him, and 
try to persuade him to espouse her cause. This he would very 
likely be willing to do ; for if he were to be the means of deposing 
Ptolemy, and of putting her upon the throne instead, he could 
exercise through her a commanding influence in Egyptian aflairs. 

What luere the difficulties i?i the way of her gaining access to 
Ccesar f 

But the difficulty was, how she was to get to him, for Potliinus 
was under Ptolemy's command, and would, of course, watch all 
the avenues of approach to Caesar's palace with great vigilance 
and care. She could not march to Alexandria at the head of her 
army, for Ptolemy's army was strongly intrenched in a position 
that was directly in the w^ay. She could not attempt to pass alone, 
or with few attendants, through the country, for every town and 
village was occupied with garrisons and officers under the orders 
of Pothinus, and she would certainly be intercepted. She had no 
fleet, and could therefore not make the passage openly by sea. 
Besides, even if she could by any means reach the gates of Alex- 
andria, how was she to pass safely through the streets of the city 
to the palace where Ceesar resided, since the whole city, except the 
palace thus occupied as Caesar's quarters, was wholly in the hands 
of Pothinus's government ? 

Describe the stratagems that she devised for joining herself to 
Ccesar, 

She finally contrived to send a trusty messenger to Caesar se- 
cretly, to ask him if he was willing that she should come. He 
sent back word to her to come by all means. So Cleopatra left 
her camp with a small number of attendants, and in disguise, and 
came along the coast in a small boat, and so entered Alexandria. 
She then caused herself to be rolled up into a bale, and to be thus 

K 



146 



EGYPT. 




Cleopatra's stratagem 



carried in on mens' shoulders. The guards at the door asked the 
men what it was that they were carrying, and they said it was a 
roll of carpet, or something of that sort, for one of Ca3sar's rooms. 
So they let them go in. 

Describe the course and the termination of the war, 

C^sar immediately espoused Cleopatra's cause with great zeal, 
and, after a long and obstinate war, Ptolemy was drowned in one 
of the branches of the Nile, in attempting to make his escape 
across it in a boat, after a battle in which his army had been de- 
feated ; and then Cleopatra succeeded to the throne without any 
farther opposition. Caesar soon afterward returned to Kome. 

What occurred on the death of Ccesar ? 

Cleopatra continued to reign until after the death of C^sar. 
As soon as his death occurred, several great generals rose at once, 
-and began to contend with each other for the command of the em- 



EGYPT. 147 

pire. Mark Antony was one. Cleopatra espoused his cause. A 
great battle was fought, and Antony was victorious. The victory- 
placed him at the head of the Roman commonwealth. 

W/iat course did Antony adojpt in respect to CleojxUra f 

As soon as his power was thus established, he sent a deputa- 
tion to Cleopatra, summoning her to come to Asia Minor, and 
meet him there, in order to answer to certain charges which he 
had heard made against her. Many people supposed that this 
was only a pretense, and that Antony, far from wishing to try 
Cleopatra for any supposed crimes, only wished to see her and en- 
joy her society, having heard a great deal of the fame of hex 
beauty. Indeed, the messenger who came for her told her that 
she need not be alarmed. "As soon as Antony sees you," said 
he, "no matter what the charges are, you will find yourself in 
great favor." 

The messenger furthermore advised Cleopatra not to hesitate in 
respect to accepting the invitation. "Proceed at once to Cilicia 
without fear," said he, " and present yourself before Antony in as 
much pomp and magnificence as you can command. I will an- 
swer for the result." Cleopatra determined to follow this advice. 
Her imagination was fired with the idea of making so splendid a 
conquest, and she determined at once to set out on the voyage. 

It elate the adventures that Cleopatra met loith i?i going to 
Antony. 

So Cleopatra set out for Alexandria with a fleet, and a large 
company of attendants, to wait upon Antony. The place to which 
she went was Tarsus, near the northeastern corner of the Medi- 
terranean Sea. Tarsus is on the River Cydnus, not far from its 
mouth. Cleopatra sailed up the river in a most magnificent gal- 
ley, with purple sails and silver-mounted oars. She built a pavil- 
ion on the banks of the river when she had landed, and then in- 
vited Antony to come and sup with her. He came, accompanied 
by a party of his friends, and was perfectly amazed at the splen- 



148 



EOYPT. 




dor and magnificence of the scene, and at the luxuriousness of the 
banquet. The tents and pavilions where the entertainment was 
spread were illuminated with an immense number of lamps, which 
were arranged in a very beautiful and ingenious manner. The 
vast variety, too, of the meats and wines, and of the vessels of 
gold and silver with which the tables were loaded, and the gor- 
geous magnificence of the dresses worn by Cleopatra and her at- 
tendants, conspired to form a scene that resembled enchantment 
more than reality. 

What ivas the i^esidt of this intervievj f 

The result was as the messenger had predicted. Antony wafj 
so completely captivated by Cleopatra's charms that he soon lost 
all his ambition, and all his interest in public affairs. He finally 
went to Egypt, and spent the winter with Cleopatra there in lux- 
ury and dissipation. The consequence was, that his affairs went 



EGYPT. 



149 



entirely to ruin, and both he and Cleopatra came to a miserable 
end together. 



^ K 




' 'ii^ 'I %i# Jifh" 



t iji 



\Ji 




KOOM IN CLEOPATRA'S PALACE. 



W/iat were the consequences of Antony's connection with Cleo- 
patra ? 

Antony brought himself into the difficulties which finally led to 
Iris destruction by remaining in Egypt so long, and giving himself 
up so wholly to Cleopatra as to neglect entirely the affairs of gov- 
ernment, and to produce great dissatisfaction and discontent at 
Rome. His gi'cat rival Octavius took advantage of this state of 
things to raise an army and assume an attitude of hostility toward 
Antony, with a view of making himself master of the empire. 



150 EGYPT. 

-Vntony at last aroused himself to effort. He collected a fleet, 
and went across the sea to meet his enemy. Cleopatra went with 
him. But it was too late. 

Describe the battle of Actium. 

The fleets met at Actium, on the western coast of Greece, and 
a great battle was fought. Antony's force was vastly superior in 
point of numbers to that of his enemy, and the battle was pro- 
longed and hotly contested ; but in the end, Antony was entirely 
defeated, and he and Cleopatra fled to Egypt together in dismay. 

What becaine of Antony after the battle? 

He remained in Alexandria some time in a state of stupid de- 
spair, Octavius advancing all the time, and dooming him more and 
more certainly to destruction. Antony meanwhile abandoned 
himself more unreservedly than ever to carousals and dissipation. 
Cleopatra made festivals and celebrations on the most lavish scale. 
At length, when Octavius amved, and the whole city was in a state 
of wild confusion and excitement, Antony killed himself. 

What became of Cleojjatra f 

Cleopatra was taken prisoner. Octavius kept her confined in 
a tower for some days, intending to take her with him a captive 
to Rome ; but she was found dead in her cell on the day before 
she was to sail. 

By what means was it said that she destroyed herself? 

It was supposed that she killed herself by placing an asp — a 
poisonous reptile — upon her arm. There was, however, no mark 
of the bite to be seen on her arm, and the actual cause of her death 
was never certainly known. 

What became of Egypt cfter this ? 

After this, Egypt became a Eoman province. 



FALL OF THE EOMAN EMPIEE. 151 



CHAPTEE XVI. 

FALL OF THE EOMAN EMPIEE. 

What vjas the character of Ccesar's poicer, and how was it ex- 
ercised / 

Julius C^esae exercised the vast power which he acquired over 
the Eoman commonwealth, on the whole, wisely and well, but it 
was usurped power after all. He gained it by force ; that is, by 
means of the military strength of the immense armies which had 
been placed under his command for other purposes. 

What is such a government as this called? 

A government like this, which is maintained by the power of 
armies, independent of the will of the people, is called a military 
despotism. 

What is the general character of a military desjpotism at first ? 

A military despotism may be, for the time being, a good gov- 
ernment or a bad government. It depends upon the character of 
the man who wields it. The man who first establishes a military 
despotism is usually a man of great talent and energy, and of 
enlarged, comprehensive, and far-sighted views ; and out of re- 
gard to his own interest, seen as he sees it, he governs the coun- 
try well. He wishes to increase its prosperity, and to develop its 
resources in full, as a means of aggrandizing his own power. 

IIoiv is it that its character usually changes afterioardf 

But at his death, or in one or two generations afterward, all is 
changed. The power usually falls, sooner or later, into the hands 
of feeble and incompetent relatives, or dissolute and reckless sons, 
who have no higher ends or aims, in the exercise of it, than to 
gratify their own malignant passions, or their dissolute or vicious 
desires ; for these weak or dissolute men, though they never would 
have been able to establish such a government themselves, find it 



152 FALL OF THE EOMAN EMPIRE. 

very easy to get possession of it when it is handed down to them 
already estabHshed by a powerful predecessor. 

Describe the quarrels that usually arose among the great gen- 
erals^ and the ejects of them. 

For a time after the first establishment of the military despot- 
ism in Rome, there was no obvious way, when an emperor died, 
of determining who should succeed him, and dreadful wars broke 
out among the great generals that were left in order to decide the 
question. We have seen an example of this in the case of Anto- 
ny and Octavius. In these controversies the people had little to 
say. The armies had got the mastery over them, and they were 
obliged to submit. The city was thrown into a state of terror and 
confusion, the country was ravaged, innocent and helpless towns 
were besieged, sacked, and destroyed, and all the countless mis- 
eries and horrors of civil war spread over the whole land by the 
lawlessness of a vast military monster which those who had cre- 
ated it could no longer control. 

What course do the Americans ado2:)t in resjyect to great ar- 
mies f 

The people of America, who desu'e to keep the control of their 
own public affairs in their own hands, are extremely watchful and 
jealous against the formation of large armies. They know very 
well that, after passing certain limits, they become masters of the 
country, and rule it with an iron hand, and that, when once their 
power is established, it is almost impossible for the people to es- 
cape from the miserable thraldom. 

What teas, in general, the character of the Roman emperors ? 

The Roman people made repeated efforts to resist the dreadful 
domination of these despots, but all was of no avail. The career 
of one of them might be cut short by rebellion or assassination, but 
while the army remained there was always another general at hand 
ready to take his place, and thus the line went on. Some of these 
emperors were perfect monsters of cruelty and vice. They op- 



FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIEE. 



153 



pressed the people most mercilessly, and when, on any account, they 
became specially angry with them, they vented their rage and spite 
in the most wanton and ferocious manner. 

WAat great crime ivas committed by Nero ? 

One of them, Nero, it was said, in a fit of anger set the city on 
fire, and then was so much pleased and amused at the spectacle, 




BLRMKG OF ROML. 



that he went to one of the theatres, where he could see the flames 
to good advantage, and sang and played there with delight. 

What became of the admhvistration of the government in these 
times ? 

Of course, while the power was in such hands, the whole ad- 
ministration of the government gradually fell into confusion, and, 
in process of time, the greatness and strength of the empire was 
wasted away. Rebellions which could not be quelled broke out in 
the provinces, and riots and tumults, produced by turbulent and 



154 



FALL OF THE EOMAN EMPIEE. 



Imngrj laborers and artisans, swept tlu'ougli the streets of Rome. 
The peaceful inhabitants were, of course, kept in a constant state 
of alarm, and all the useful pursuits of life were interrupted or 
wholly suspended. 




RIOTS IN ROME. 



How did this state of things finally residt f 

At length, certain half-savage tribes that lived in those days in 
the northern parts of Europe, and who had never been subdued, 
began to encroach upon the frontiers. There was no efficient force 
there to resist them, and so they advanced gradually, nearer and 
nearer, year by year, toward the heart of the empire. The names 
of some of the principal of these hordes were the Ostrogoths, the 
A^isigoths, the Vandals, and the Huns. 



FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 155 

Who was the most distinguished leader of the barbarians that 
invaded Borne f 

One of the most distinguislied of the leaders of these barbarians 
was Alaric, the king of the Visigoths. He came from the north- 
ern part of Germany. He came on gradually at the head of his 
hordes until he had conquered Greece, and then he advanced with 
a powerful army into Italy, and threatened Eome. 

IToio did the Roman emjperor attenvpt to save the city from 
ruin ? 

The Roman emperor, finding himself entirely unable to meet 
the invader, offered Alaric a great ransom if he would spare the 
city. This ransom consisted of a vast sum in gold and silver, 
and a large quantity of silk and scarlet cloth, these being the kinds 
of treasures that the barbarians most highly prized. The offer of 
this ransom was a very desperate measure. Such a mode of buy- 
ing off either conquerors or robbers is never long effectual, for 
such men are never faithful to their agreements, and when they 
find that they succeed tlius in accomplishing their ends, the tempta- 
tion soon becomes irresistible to renew the aof^ression. 

IIoio did the invasion of the barbai^ians finally end? 

This ransom saved the city for a time, but Alaric, as might have 
been expected, soon came again, and as the emperor had now no 
second ransom to pay, he laid siege to the city, and by surround- 
ing it, and cutting off the supplies, he compelled it to surrender. 
Then the whole horde of his barbarian army poured into the city, 
plundering, burning, and destroying wherever they came. The 
proud imperial city never recovered from this blow. A great por- 
tion of it was burned, and the immense treasures which had been 
accumulating there for a thousand years were carried ofi* in pillage 
or wantonly destroyed. 

What is the ])resent condition of Rome ? 

Since that time this ancient capital of the world lias gone grad- 
ually more and more to decay. The people have become degen- 



156 



FALL OF THE EOMAN EMPIEE. 



erate and degraded, and the city itself lias now little left to mark 
its former grandeur except the imposing magnificence of its ruins. 




RUINS OF ROME. 



What became the general condition of Europe after the fall 
of Rome ? 

After the fall of the Roman empire, all Europe sank into a con- 
dition of semi-barbarism, which continued for several hundred 
years. This period is commonly called in history the Dark Ages, 
and it continued until at leno;th the civilization of the modern na^ 
tions of Europe began gradually to appear, and to develop itself 
more and more. 



ANCIENT CHRONOLOGY. 157 



CHAPTER XYII. 

ANCIENT CHEONOLOGY. 



What is chronology f 

Chronology is the science that treats of the periods of time in 
which chronological events have occurred. On the following page 
is a table, which represents to the eye the progress of time from 
the Deluge to the birth of Christ, with the most important events 
recorded at the time when they occurred. 

Describe the construction of the table. 

The letters B.C. at the head of the column of figures stand for 
Before Christ, and the figures below denote the years. Each line 
represents a century. 

At whatxjeriod have nearly all the imjwrtant events that are 
recorded in history occurred f 

From this table it appears that the Deluge took place about 
2400 years before Christ, and that nearly all the important events 
of history which have been thus far narrated in this work occurred 
during the latter part of the time represented in the Table. The 
foundation of Carthage, however, though it is mentioned in one of 
the latter chapters of the book, occurred comparatively early. We 
observe by the table too, at a glance, the comparative duration of 
the several great empires of ancient times. 

For whatjyortion of the history of the loorld is our hiowledge 
confined to lohat the ScriiJtures teach us f 

We observe, also, that after the foundation of Babylon and Nin- 
eveh, which are set down respectively at 2200 and 2100, a long 
period elapses, namely, from 2100 to 800, in which no events ex- 
cept those relating to Scripture History are recorded. The truth 
is, that of this whole period— about twelve centuries— nothing ex- 
cept what is recorded in Scripture is certainly known. It is not 



158 



ANCIENT CHEONOLOGY. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



2400 The Deluge. 
2300 

2200 Babylon founded. 
2100 Nineveh founded. 
2000 

1900 Abraham. 
1800 
1700 
1600 

1500 Athens founded. 
1400 Moses. 
1300 
1200 
1100 
1000 

900 Solomon. 
800 Carthage founded. 

Rome founded. 
700 Fall of Nineveh. 
600 Cyrus. 

Fall of Babylon. 
500 Roman kings expelled. 
400 Battle of Thermopylm. 
300 Alexander the Great. 
200 Punic wars. 
100 Destruction of Carthage. 
Caesar and Pompey. 
Birth of Christ. 



c 

s 

o 



.11 about the year 800 that the period of authentic secular his- 
torj begins. And, indeed, for some centuries after this time, very 
httle reliance is to be placed upon the historical truth of the le- 
gends ivh:ch the ancient writers have recorded. 



ANCIENT CHRONOLOGY. 159 

How is the duration of the several empires and kingdoms rep- 
resented in the table ? 

To the riglit, in the Chronological Table, are black lines repre- 
senting the duration of the principal empires and kingdoms of an- 
cient times. By this plan the comparative durations of these 
states are made visible to the eye, the beginnings and endings of 
the lines being made to correspond with the years at which the 
states respectively commenced, and, indeed, their independent ex- 
istence. 

What is the object of such a table as this? 

Of course, such a representation as this can not be entirely ex- 
act, but it assists us very much in obtaining general conceptions 
of the ancient chronology. 



P A E T II. 



ENGLISH HISTORY 



L 



THE STORY OF HISTORY. 



PART II. 

ENGLISH HISTORY. 



CHAPTEE I. 

THE ANCIENT BRITONS. 

1 Vkat icere the original inhabitants of the island of Great 
Britahi called f 

The first part of this work contains a narrative of the course 
of Ancient History from the earliest ages down to the final fall of 
the Roman empire, and the sacking of Rome by Alaric and his 
horde of Goths a few hundred years after the Christian era. In 
that narrative it was related how Julius Ca3sar, the first of the 
Roman emperors, invaded Great Britain from his province of 
Gaul. The aboriginal inhabitants, which Julius C^sar found on 
the island at the time when he took possession of it, are called in 
history the Ancient Britons. They are the earliest inhabitants 
of the country of whom we have any information. 

What is the only source of loritten information respecting 
them ? 

Yery little, however, is now known respecting them, for the}' 
did not understand the art of writing, and so they have left no 
books giving an account of their origin or their history. All the 
information we have comes through the statements made by Ju- 
lius Csesar respecting them when he went back to Rome, and also 
by other Roman generals who afterward visited the island. These 



164 THE ANCIENT BRITONS. 

statements were written, and have been preserved in the Roman 
books which have come down to our time. 

W/iat other sowces of information have toe resjyecting them ? 

Besides these accounts, there are some sculptures remaining at 
Home that have figures upon them, from which people have learn- 
ed something of the manners and customs of the ancient Britons. 
Also, in various parts of England, old coins have been dug up, 
and fragments of arms and utensils. In one place a mould was 
found which was used for casting spear-heads. It seems the 
spear-heads of those days were not made of iron, which is usually 
shaped by forging, but of bronze, which must be cast in a mould. 
It was by means of the same metal that the people made their 
war-chariots, their axes, and nearly all their utensils. 

What are the metals that loere used hy the Britoiis f 

Bronze is a metal formed of copper and tin.* Brass is formed 
of copper and zinc. The Britons used bronze for their armor be- 
cause it is harder than iron, though it is by no means so hard as 
steel. Perhaps, too, they could not work iron very well. There 
were immense beds of iron ore in the northern and northwestern 
parts of England, but they may not have been then known. The 
copper and tin mines are in Cornwall, which is the country lying- 
in the southwestern part of England, near the sea, and these the 
Britons had been accustomed to work from the earliest ages. 

Descmbe the aiicient commerce that originated in the tin mines. 

Indeed, it was through these mines of tin and copper, in Britain, 
that the country had chiefly been known before the days of Ca?sar. 
Merchants w^ere accustomed to go there to procure their metals, 

* By tin is meant what is commonly called block tin. The material of which tin 
pails, and other such ware are made, does not really consist of tin, but of thin sheets 
of iron coated with tin, or, as it is called, tinned iron. It is only the surface which is 
tin. Tin alone would not be strong enough for such vessels, so they make them of 
iron, which is previously covered with a coating of tin to keep the iron from rusting. 

"When vessels made of this ware have been long used, the tin gets worn off, and we 
come to the iron, as we know by the rusting of the vessel in the worn places. 



THE ANCIENT BEITONS. 



165 




FORMS OF THE WAR CHARIOT AND THE ARMOR Ot THE ANCIENT BRIION^. 

and then to convey them to Greece or Italy, and to other countries 
on the Mediterranean. The Carthaginians used to do this in their 
ships. So, after the time of Caesar, did the Romans. They would 
transport the metals across the Channel to France, thence up the 
Seine in boats as far as the river was navigable. There they would 
unlade the boats, and convey the metals across the land to the 
Rhone, and then put it into boats again, and float it down the 
Rhone to the sea. At the mouth of the river, or, rather, at the 
town nearest tiie mouth, they would embark it on board their ships, 
and send it by sea where it was required. 



166 THE ANCIENT BRITONS. 

Relate the story of Brutus, 

These Britons came, it was supposed, originally from the Con- 
tinent. Indeed, there was a traditon among the people that they 
came from Italy, under the guidance of a man named Brutus. The 
story is a marvelous one, and is considered as a mere legend not 
worthy of any serious attention. Brutus was a wild adventurer, 
who proceeded from Italy at the head of a horde of men, that 
were little better than robbers and pirates. He first invaded the 
territories of a certain king, who, finding that he could not drive 
him away, offered to give him his daughter in marriage if he would 
go away of his own accord. Brutus accepted this offer, took his 
bride, embarked his men in his ships, and sailed away. 

Describe the course of his voyage. 

Brutus, with his fleet and his bride, sailed on for some time, 
until at length he came to a deserted island, where his party found 
the ruins of a city. Here there was an ancient temple of Diana, 
and an image of the goddess. This image, the legend relates, was 
endued with the pov/er of uttering oracular responses to those who 
consulted it with proper ceremonies and forms. Brutus inquired 
of this oracle where he should go to find a place of final settlement 
for himself and his followers. The response of the oracle described 
the island of Britain to him, and directed him how to find it. 

He traversed the whole length of the Mediterranean with his fleet, 
and then, passing out through the Straits of Gibraltar, he followed 
the coast of Spain to the northward. After a while he came to 
Britain, and, being much pleased with the country, he landed. 

How did he get possession of the country f 

He found the country inhabited by giants. The chief of these 
giants was named Gogmagog. Brutus had dreadful conflicts with 
these giants in various parts of the island. Finally he conquered 
and killed them all. Old Gogmagog he threw from the cliffs of 
Dover into the sea. After this, he and his men settled in the 
country. 



THE ANCIENT BEITONS. 



167 




COAST OF ENGLAND AT DOVER. 



What was the state of the island at the time when Ccesar 
landed ? 

Whatever we may think of these stories in respect to the orig- 
inal settlement of the British Isles, there is no doubt that when 
Ca3sar arrived in Britain he found the country densely peopled. 
The inhabitants were divided into a great number of different 
states and kingdoms, and, though they were in many respects rude 
and uncultivated, they seem to have made considerable progress 
in the arts of life. Many of their manners and customs were very 
peculiar. 



168 THE ANCIENT BEITONS. 

Describe the towns. 

Their towns, for instance, did not consist, as with us, of a com- 
pact mass of buildings, but of quite a large tract of country, with 
fields and woods, and scattered huts all over it. This space was 
surrounded and inclosed with a sort of wall, made of earth and 
sodded, for defense, with a ditch outside of it. This intrenchment 
was carried all around the town. Sometimes the trunks of trees, 
which had been felled for the purpose, were used for strengthening 
the embankments. 

Describe the houses. 

The houses which the people lived in within these towns were 
mere huts, being more like Indian wigwams than like houses. 
They are described by the Romans as being small and round, and 
covered with a conical or dome-shaped roof There was a door 
in front for an entrance, and before the door was a sort of yard in- 
closed by a circular wall. In fact, every thing seems to have been 
circular in their architecture. This ^^ard was probably for the an- 
imals that belonged to the household, to confine them at night. 
The whole structure is supposed to have presented the appearance 
represented in the engraving on the opposite page. 

What evidence is there that this ivas really the style of the 
houses ? 

We are not obliged to depend altogether on the Roman descrip- 
tions of these huts, for there are representations of such structures 
on some of the ancient monuments of Rome that remain to the 
present day. 

What is Tcnoimi in resjpect to the furniture and household 
utensils of the Britons ? 

In respect to the manner in w^hich these huts were furnished, 
and to the utensils and implements which the ancient Britons used, 
very little is now known. Their utensils were doubtless of a very 
rude and primitive construction, and the number of articles of 
every kind was probably very small. The people were skillful in 



THE ANCIENT BRITONS. 



169 




HUTS OF ANCIENT BRITONS. 

making baskets and wicker-work, and many of the vessels which 
they used were formed in this way. Even their liuts were some- 
times made of wicker-w^ork. 

Who itjere the Druids f 

The different tribes and kingdoms of the Britons were govern- 
ed by their several princes or chieftains, but the most remarkable 
thing in connection with their system was the existence of a class 
of priests, whose functions were half religious and half political, 
called Druids. These Druids performed the religious services of 
the people and offered the sacrifices. On the following page is a 
picture of one of them, in his sacerdotal robes. 

Describe the remains still existing of the temples of the Dmiids. 

The oak tree was considered sacred by the Druids. They per- 

L 



170 



THE ANCIENT BEITONS. 




A DRUID IN HIS KOBE 



formed their religious rites and built their temples in oak groves. 
Thus the oak stands as the emblem and symbol of their religion. 
Their temples must have been very curious structures. The re- 
mains of some of them are to be found in different places in En- 



THE ANCIENT BRITONS. 



171 



gland at the present 
day. They consist- 
ed of great stones, 
standing up on the 
ends, and arranged 
in a circle, with oth- 
er very large stones 
placed across at the 
top. Precisely what 
the Druids did in 
these temples is not 
now known, nor is it 
known how the tem- 
ples appeared when 
they were entire. All 
that we see remain- 
ing of them now is 
the stones, and these 
are wasted away and 
corroded by time, so 
that even the original form of them does not distinctly appear. 
In some cases only single sets of these stones remain, as in the 
preceding engraving. In other cases a large part of the whole 
circle can be traced. The most remarkable of these Druidical re- 
mains is one called Stonehenge, which stands on Salisbury Plain. 
What is the chief thing that is vemarkaUe in resjMct to these 
ruins f 

It is considered very remarkable that a people so rude and un- 
mstructed as the ancient Britons must have been, could have con- 
trived the means of moving such immense stones as those of which 
these ruins are composed. 




DRUIDICAL RUIN. 



172 THE ROMAN INVASION. 



CHAPTER 11. 

THE ROMAN INVASION. 

What was the first step taken by Julius Ccesar when he con- 
templated the invasion of Britain f 

When Julius Caesar, standing on the shores of Gaul, looked 
across the Channel at the chalky cliffs which form the southern 
shore of Britain, he said to himself, " Before 1 attempt to take my 
army over, 1 must send a reconnoitrer to explore the shore and 
find a suitable place to land the troops." 
Whom did he send to reconnoitre? 

So he sent an officer of his army, named Volusenus, directing 
him to cross the Channel, and sail along the coast till he found a 
good smooth shore for landing armed men. Volusenus took only 
a single galley. 

What communication did the people of Britain make to himf 

Besides this, Ca3sar inquired of all the merchants whom he could 
see, and carefully collected whatever of information they could give 
him about the country. Tlie people of Britain, in the mean time, 
heard, through some of the merchants, probably, of Ca?sar's designs, 
and they sent an embassador to him, with presents and peaceful 
messages, wishing, if possible, to avert the danger that threatened 
them by kind and gentle words. Caesar received the embassage 
very civilly, and sent back friendly messages in return. He said 
that he Avas glad to hear of the amicable feelings that prevailed in 
Britain toward the Romans ; that he wished the Britons to be his 
allies, and that he was coming soon to pay them a visit. He 
treated the embassador kindly, and dismissed him with honor. 

Describe the preparations that he made for the invasion. 

All this time he continued to concentrate his forces on the coast 
near Calais, and to collect all the ships and galleys that he could 



THE EOMAN INVASION. 173 

procure, and get them ready for sea. At length Volusenus re- 
turned with his report, and Ca3sar's fleet prepared to sail. 

Relate the occurrences wldch took place in the passage of the 
exjpedition across the Channel, 

There were about eighty transports for the foot-soldiers, and 
eighteen more at a different port for conveying a squadron of horse. 
At length a favorable morning came, and Cassar gave orders for 
the fleet to sail. The two divisions did not set out together, for 
it took some time to send the order to the port where the squad- 
ron of horse was to be embarked. This caused some delay. When 
the fleets had crossed the Channel, too, instead of finding the land- 
ing-place open, as they had expected, they saw a great army of 
Britons assembled on the beach to resist them. Ca3sar's ships 
then moved along the coast, the Britons following them, ready to 
give them battle whenever they should attempt to land. 

How was the layiding at length effected? 

At length Caesar gave the order to turn the galleys in toward 
,the beach, and a dreadful conflict ensued, half in the water and 
half on the shore. The surges of the sea, as they rolled in upon 
the shelving beach, were dyed with the blood of the combatants. 
At last, however, Caesar effected a landing, and drove the Britons 
away. 

What folloived after Ccesar had landed? 

He then advanced into the interior of the country, and for some 
time carried on a vigorous war with the natives. He was gen- 
erally victorious, but, after all, he did not succeed in making any 
permanent conquest of the country. 

Helate ivhat occurred in respect to the ships. 

It was in the fall of the year that this invasion took place, and 
C^sar did not think it safe to remain in Britain during the winter. 
Indeed, as it was, his ships, as they lay on the beach, were once 
or twice destroyed by the equinoctial storms, and he was obliged 
to rebuild them or to send to Gaul for new ones. At last, to se- 



174 



THE ROMAN INVASION. 




COMBAT OK THE BEACH 



cure them from this danger, he adopted the plan of drawing them 
up on the shore, and storing them there in a fortified camp. This 
shows that the vessels which they used in those days could not 
have been of very large dimensions. 

Did Ccesar spend the winter in Britain f 
^ In consequence of these difficulties and dangers, Caesar left Brit- 
ain before the winter came on, and returned to Gaul. 

Describe the subsequent course of the ivar. 

The Romans, however, did not give up the contest. Some years 
after this they sent new armies into the country, and in course of 



THE EOMAN INVASION. 175 

time made themselves masters of a great portion of it, and their 
dominion, once established, continued several hundred years. 
During all this time, however, wars wxre continually breaking out 
between them and particular kings and princes among the Britons, 
and a great many extraordinary events occurred. Two of the- 
most distinguished of the enemies of the Romans among the Brit- 
ons were Caractacus and Boadicea. 

Describe the exjyloits of Caractacus. 

Caractacus was the king of a tribe of Britons called the Silu- 
rians. I do not know in what part of the island the Silurians 
lived ; some say in the northern part, in or near Scotland. He 
was a very brave prince. By means of his military talents and 
skill he acquired a great ascendency over his countrymen, and at 
length he organized a formidable rebellion against the Romans. 
He fought them for some time desperately and with great success. 
The war with him continued for nine years before the Romans 
were able to subdue him. 

What resolution did he and his soldiers finally take f 

At last he intrenched himself in a very strong camp, in a place 
where he thought the Romans w^ould not dare to attack him. "If 
they do," said he to his soldiers, "we w411 die, every one of us, 
before we will yield to them." 

Describe the situation of the Roman general in reference to 
an attach 

His position was so strong that for a time the Roman general, 
whose name was Ostorius, did not dare to attack him, but the sol- 
diers urged him on. They had been harassed by the operations 
of Caractacus so long, that now, when his whole force was concen- 
trated in one position, they were burning w4th impatience to coji- 
quer him, and so end the war. 

What teas the result f 

The Roman general was finally persuaded to make the attack, 
and the result was as the soldiers liad anticipated. It ended tlic 



176 THE EOMAN INVASION. 

war. The intrencliment of the Britons was broken in, and the 
whole army routed. Caractacus himself and all his family were 
taken prisoners. 

W/iat became of Caractacus f 

Ostorius carried Caractacus and his family, and all his princi- 
pal attendants and officers, to Eome, and there made a sort of tri- 
umphal procession, and paraded the poor captives before the peo- 
ple of the city. The wife and daughters of Caractacus were with 
him. They and all the other prisoners walked along in the pro- 
cession, with downcast and anxious looks, and manifesting every 
indication of terror, distress, and shame. Caractacus himself, how- 
ever, walked erect, and looked around upon the assembled crowds 
with a proud and haughty air, which showed very plainly that his 
spirit was not subdued. When he came into the presence of the 
emperor, where all the other captives began to beg for mercy in 
the most humble and imploring manner, he stood wholly unmoved, 
and answered the questions which they put to him in so manly 
and undaunted a manner, that the emperor and all who witnessed 
the scene were struck with admiration. The emperor immediate- 
ly ordered that his chains should be taken off and that he should 
be set at liberty. 

What hecaine of his family ? 

His family were liberated too, but they did not return to their 
native land. 

Who was Boadicea f What j[;Za?i did her husband form to se- 
cure for her the protection of the Romans f 

Boadicea was queen of a tribe of Britons that lived on the east- 
ern coast of the island. Her husband's name was Prasutagus. 
He was very much afraid of the Eomans while he lived, which 
was at about the time of the wars with Caractacus or a little after, 
and when he died he made a will, dividing his property between 
his two daughters and the Emperor of Rome. He thought this 
would make the Eoman government friendly to him, and that 



THE EOMAN INVASION. . 177 

they would be kind to his wife and daughters when he was no 
more. 

IIoio did this plan succeed f 

The plan, however, failed entirely. The Romans, after Prasu- 
tagus was dead, plundered his kingdom, and abused and maltreat- 
ed his family, especially his two daughters, in the most outrageous 
manner. 

What toere the temj)erainent and character of Boadicea^ and 
lohat did she do f 

Boadicea was not a woman to submit to such things quietly. 
She was very strong and masculine in her character, and the in- 
juries wdiich had been inflicted on her daughters made her frantic 
with rage. She immediately raised a rebellion. She gathered an 
army, partly from her own kingdom or tribe, and partly from other 
tribes near that she persuaded to join her. She took the field at 
the head of this army, which, according to the accounts of the time, 
was immensely large, and the Romans, gathering together all the 
troops they could command, came forth to meet her. 

Describe the appeccrance and demeanor of Boadicea before the 
battle. 

Before the battle Boadicea rode along the ranks of the army in 
a war chariot, with her two daughters beliind her. She herself 
stood up in her chariot, and harangued the soldiers as she passed 
along the lines, denouncing the tyranny and the crimes of the 
Romans, complaining bitterly of the wrongs she had suffered from 
their heartless cruelty, and urging the soldiers to fight valorously 
in the coming conflict, and thus at once avenge her wrongs and 
save their common country. 

What teas the result of the battle f 

All was, however, in vain. The battle was very fiercely fought, 
but the Romans were victorious. Poor Boadicea, when she found 
that all her hopes were now forever gone, was overwhelmed with 
despair, and killed herself by taking poison. The Britons remain- 



178 THE EOMAN INVASION. 

ed near the field of battle until they had honorably interred the 
body, and then they dispersed and the war was ended. 

Describe the change lohich at last took ^lace in the feelings of 
the Britons toward the Romans. 

In process of time, after two or three generations had passed 
away, and the anger and irritation engendered by the early wars 
had been in some measure forgotten, the Britons learned to acqui- 
esce in the rule of the Komans over them, and at last they even 
began to rely upon the E-omans to protect them against their other 
enemies. 

Who ivere the neio enemies of the Britons f Hoio did the Ro- 
mans defend the Britons from them? 

The principal of these enemies were the Picts and Scots that 
inhabited the northern part of the island. At length, a little more 
than two hundred years after the first invasion of the island, one 
of the Roman emperors, named Severus, came there with an army 
to assist the people to defend themselves against these northern 
savages. After carrying on the war for some time, and finding it 
difficult to repress the invasions of the enemy, Severus set his 
soldiers at work to build a wall across the island from one side to 
the other, with castles and towers upon it, for a garrison. 

Describe the construction of the wcdl of Severus, and the ef- 
fect of it. 

The wall was not very high, though it was high enough to pre- 
vent men from climbing over, and it was thick and strong enougli 
to resist any means of demolition which the Picts and Scots were 
likely to have at their command. By means of this wall, a com- 
paratively small number of men could keep back a large number 
of invaders. The wall continued to do good service for a long 
time, and remains of it are to be seen to this day. 

IIoio long did the Romans continue in jpossession of Britain? 
What induced them finally to withdraw ? 

The Romans continued in possession of Britain for two hundred 



THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 



179 




THE WALL OF SEVERUS. 



years after this time, making about four hundred years in ail. But 
then they began to be so hardly pressed by their own enemies, the 
Goths and Vandals, in Italy, and at the very gates of Eome, that 
they were obliged to withdraw their troops altogether from such 
remote pro^dnces as Britain. The Britons then, finding their pro- 
tectors gone, were obliged to look elsewhere for help. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 



When and under what cwcumdoMcea did the invasion of Brit- 
ain hy the Anglo-Saxons take jplacef 

About the year four hundred and fifty, a small fleet of vessels, 
filled with armed men, suddenly made their appearance at tlie isl- 



180 THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 

and of Thanet, at the mouth of the Thames. Thej had come 
across the German Ocean from some place on the Continent. They 
belonged to a race of men called in history the Anglo-Saxons. 
The men landed, and undertook to establish themselves in the 
country. They were joined afterward by others of their country- 
men, who came over in great numbers, and in the end they over- 
spread the whole country, the old race of Britons gradually disap- 
pearing before them, until linally the whole population seemed to 
be changed. The present inhabitants of England are chiefly the 
descendants of these Anglo-Saxons. 

W/iat two chieftains coimnanded the first expeditio7i that 
arrived f 

The party of Anglo-Saxons that arrived first in England, and 
landed on the island of Thanet, were under the command of two 
chieftains, Hengist and Horsa, names that have become very fa- 
mous in English history as those of the two first Anglo-Saxon 
captains that landed in that country. The opposite engraving rep- 
resents one of the Anglo-Saxon chieftains, in the dress and armor 
which they were accustomed to wear in those days. In the back- 
2:round we see one of their vessels in the water. 

Who loas the pniice of the Britons at this time ? How did 
he receive the Anglo-Saxons f 

The name of the chief prince of the Britons at that time was 
Vortigern. When Yortigern heard of the arrival of this new party, 
he was pleased rather than troubled by it. He hoped that they 
would help him to defend his dominions from the Picts and Scots, 
and the other enemies that harassed them. So he sent a friendly 
deputation to the Saxons, inviting them to become his allies. 

What jyroposal did he make to thert%? 

If they would settle in his dominions, he said, and assist him in 
his wars, he would grant them the isle of Thanet, and a consider- 
able portion of territory on the main land besides, for their abode, 
and treat tliem in other respects in a friendly manner. 



THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 



181 




ANGLO-SAXON CHIEFTAIN. 



How ivas the ^rroposcd received f 

Hengist and Horsa agreed to tins proposal, and they sent ini 
mediately back to the Continent to invite more of the Anglo-Sax- 
ons to come and join them. This invitation was readily accepted, 
;ind great numbers came. 



182 THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 

W/io teas lloweiia ? llelate the circumstances of her finst 
introduction to Yortigern. 

It happened that Hengist, the first of these chieftains, had a 
daughter at home, a beautiful young maiden, and the same mes- 
senger that was sent to bring more ships and a larger army was 
also directed to bring her, and probably the other members of Hen- 
gist's family. The young lady's name was Rowena. Soon after 
Rowena arrived, Hengist invited Yortigern and some of his chief 
officers to a great entertainment which he had made for him in his 
camp, and in the midst of the entertainment he sent Rowena in to 
present the king with a goblet of wine. Rowena performed the 
duty assigned her in a very graceful and charming manner. 

What teas the result of this transaction f 

Yortigern was immediately so much struck with Rowena'? 
beauty and grace, that he proposed to Hengist to give her to him 
in marriage. Hengist manifested great surprise at tliis offer, and 
at first said that he could not possibly give his consent ; but. 
finally, he allowed himself to be persuaded. Indeed, it is probable 
that this was secretly liis design when he sent for Rowena. The 
maiden herself made no objection to the marriage, and, according- 
ly, the ceremony was performed. The alliance between the Brit- 
ons and the Saxons was now complete. 

Describe the ojoerations ichich noio tooJc jplace between the al- 
lied chieftains and the Picts and Scots. 

The chieftains now turned the united force of their arms against 
the common enemies, especially the Picts and Scots on the north. 
The wall of Severus was a very good protection so long as it was 
well garrisoned and guarded, but when the Roman troops were 
withdrawn, the Britons could no longer effectually defend it. The 
Picts and Scots made breaches here and there, and broke through. 
And then, besides, they contrived to come round the ends of the 
wall in boats on the sea, and so find their way into England, some- 
times in great numbers. 



THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 



183 



What sort of boats were icsed in those days f 

The boats used by the various tribes of the island of Great Brit- 
ain in those days are very curious contrivances. They were call- 
ed coracles, and something very much like them is made in many 
parts of Wales to this day. They were made of hides stretched 




THE CORACLES. 



over a frame of basket-work or wicker-work, very much like the 
boats of the ancient Assyrians, as seen represented in the sculp- 
tures found at Nineveh at the present day. 

What were the qualities of these coracles ? 

These coracles were very light. The boatmen, when they came 
to the landing, could take them up and carry them on their backs, 



as represented in the preceding engraving. 



Of course, such 



184 THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 

craft as this would not stand a heavy sea, but they could be nav- 
igated very safely across a smooth river, and even along the coast 
at sea, in calm and pleasant weatlier. 

IIoio did the coming of the Saxons into Britain end f 

The Saxons soon succeeded in driving back the Picts and Scots ; 
then they proceeded to establish themselves every where through- 
out the island, as if it had been their own native home. Their 
numbers were continually increased by new arrivals, and as they 
were remarkable for the courage and energy of their characters, and 
the boldness and decision which marked all the measures of their 
policy, they gradually became masters of the whole country, and 
the Britons began to diminish very rapidly in numbers and influ- 
ence, until at length they had almost entirely disappeared. 

During all this time, was there or not a good understanding 
heticeen the Britons and the Saxons f 

During this period a great many wars broke out between the 
two races, in all of which the Britons were overpowered, so that 
they came out of every conflict diminished in numbers and weak- 
ened in spirit. War broke out, indeed, even in Vortigern's day. 
Some difficulty arose between him and Hengist, and in the course 
of it, the latter, professing still to be friendly, invited Yortigern 
and three hundred of his officers and attendants to come into his 
camp to a feast, and while there the Saxons rose upon them, and 
assassinated them all except Yortigern himself, who was taken 
prisoner, and who was afterward compelled to ransom himself by 
ceding to Hengist three provinces of his kingdom. 

Belate the story of King Arthur, 

It was in the course of these wars between the Britons and An- 
glo-Saxons that the famous King Arthur appeared, about whom, 
and his Knights of the Round Table, so many ballads and tales 
have been written. According to these tales. King Arthur was a 
man of miraculous strength and valor. He was all his life a most 
terrible enemy to the Saxons. He fought twelve great battles 



THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 185 

with tliem, and was victorious in every one. In one of these bat- 
tles he killed, they said, in the course of the day, four hundred and 
seventy men with his own hand. 

What feats of strength did he jperform f 

Besides his battles with the Saxons, King Arthur performed a 
great number of other exploits, denoting prodigious strength and 
valor. He hunted and killed the most ferocious wild beasts, and 
attacked and slew a great many giants, some in England, and some 
in France and Spain. He instituted an order of knights, which he 
called the Knights of the Eound Table, consisting of those men 
who were most successful in emulating his strength and courage. 

What occurred in connection with his pilgrimage to Jerusalem f 

He was a very pious man too, according to the ideas of the 
times, and after all these great feats of hunting and of arms had 
been performed, and the world was filled with his fame, he made 
a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. On his return, he found that his 
nephew, a prince named Medrawd, had alienated the affections of 
his wife during his absence, and, in consequence of this, he chal- 
lenged the guilty seducer to single combat. The fight was long 
and obstinate ; at length both parties fell. Medrawd was killed, 
and Arthur was mortally wounded. His friends carried him off 
the field, but he soon died, and then they buried him, digging a 
very deep grave, like a well, for the body, in order, as they said, 
that the Saxons might not find it, and dig it up again. 

On the whole, what loas the final result of the Saxon invasion? 

Notwithstanding all the resistance that such chieftains as these 
could make, the Saxon power gradually extended itself through- 
out the island, and in the course of two hundred years from the 
time that Hengist and Horsa landed on the shores of Thanet, the 
whole country was entirely in their hands. 

IIoio long did they continue to rule in Britain f 

The Saxons, after this, continued to rule in England for about 
two hundred years more, making about four hundred years in all. 



186 THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 

What is the reason that ice have less information in resjpect to 
the history of England during this j^eriod than before f 

It is here to be observed that we know very much less of the his- 
tory of England during this time than during the preceding period, 
while the Romans were in possession of the country, for the Ro- 
mans were writers as well as warriors, and they preserved accounts 
of what they saw and heard, and these accounts have come down 
to the present day in books written by the Roman historians and 
scholars. Some of these books were written by the generals them- 
selves in the midst of their campaigns. Others were written by 
authors at Rome, who took pains to inquire of the generals when 
they returned from Britain in respect to the events that occurred 
during the period of their command in the province. In this man- 
ner they obtained information of the most important events, and 
recorded them for the instruction of all mankind, in historical nar- 
ratives, which were written with so much eloquence and power, 
that they have been read and admired in all succeeding ages. 

Were the Anglo-Saxons generally acquainted with letters ? 

The Anglo-Saxons, on the other hand, could write very little, 
and very few of the writings which they produced have been pre- 
served. Thus, while we know a great deal of the first four hund- 
red years of English history, yet of the four hundred years which 
came after this first period very little is certainly known. Many 
tales and legends relating to this period have come down to us, it 
is true, such as the story of King Arthur, but no reliance is placed 
upon the truth of any of them. 

Describe the system of government that prevailed during the 
Anglo-Saxon jyeriod. 

In process of time, when the dominion of the Anglo-Saxons had 
at length become supreme throughout the island, the whole terri- 
tory was divided into seven states or kingdoms, which were gov- 
erned each by its own king, while one of the seven, sometimes the 
chief of one of these kingdoms and sometimes of another, ruled 



THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 187 

in some sense over the whole, as general king of the country. 
This compound sort of kingdom was called the Saxon Heptarchy.* 

What ivere the circumstances under which Christianity was 
first introduced into England f 

It was during the continuance of the Saxon Heptarchy that 
Christianity was first introduced into England. It had been, 
however, established in Scotland and in Ireland a century or two 
before. It was first preached in Ireland by St. Patrick. He was 
born, the story is, in Brittany, on the coast of France, and was 
somehow or other, in his youth, taken by a band of robbers or free- 
booters, and carried to Ireland. Here he was employed by them 
for some time as a shepherd-boy, and then, at length, w^hen he 
gained his liberty, he became a preacher of Christianity, and was 
so successful, that in the course of his life he was the means of 
bringing almost the whole population of Ireland over to the Chris- 
tian faith. He founded churches, convents, and schools, he ordain- 
ed priests and bishops, and he inaugurated a system of religious 
worship. In a word, he effected a complete religious revolution 
in Ireland, and founded an establishment there which has endured 
substantially to the present day. St. Patrick has been accordingly 
honored as the patron saint of Ireland from that day till now. 

Who was the most distinguished jpreacher of Christianity in 
Scotland? Relate the history of lona. 

Soon after this, Christianity was preached in Scotland by mis- 
sionaries from Ireland, and the Picts and Scots were converted to 
the faith. The most distinguished of these missionaries was named 
Columba. He went to the court of the king, whose name was 
Brude, and, after explaining to him the doctrines and precepts of 
Christianity, persuaded him to be baptized. Brude then granted 
to Columba a beautiful little island called lona, which lies a short 
distance off the western coast of Scotland, for the site of a college 

* The word heptarchy comes from the Greek language, and means a system of 
seven kingdoms. 



188 



THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 



and monasteiy, and here Columba founded an institution of learn- 
ing and piety, which acquired great celebrity. 




THE MONASTERY OF lONA. 



What is the condition of lona at the j^rcsent time? 

The ruins of this monastery remain to the present day, and are 
visited every year by great numbers of tourists, who go out to the 
island in large parties every summer's day expressly to see them. 

Relate the circumstances tinder ivhich Christianity wcls first 
Introduced into Englaiid. 

After this, Christianity was introduced into England. It was 
first preached to King Ethelbert by a priest named Augustin. 
Ethelbert was one of the cliief kings that reigned during the time 



THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 189 

of the Heptarchy. His wife was a Christian princess from some 
part of France, and this, perhaps, induced him to think more fa- 
vorably than he otherwise would have done of the new religion. 

W/iat arrangements did the ki7ig make for hearing Augustin f 
The king appointed a time to meet Augustin, and the other priests 
who came with him, and hear what they had to say. The place 
of meeting was the open air. The Saxon priests recommended 
this plan, for they said in the open air the king and his company 
would be more safe against any of the magical contrivances that the 
Christian preachers might intend to practice upon them. 

Describe the ^manner hi which Augustin came into the assem- 
hly. 

When the assembly was convened, Augustin and his compan- 
ions came into it, walking solemnly in a procession. One of them 
bore a silver crucifix, and another carried a banner on which a pic- 
ture of Jesus Christ was embroidered. The other monks filled 
the air with the sounds of a solemn hymn, which they chanted in 
unison as they advanced into the assembly. 

What VMS the decision of Ethelbert in respect to Augustin's 
pro2oosal f 

Ethelbert heard patiently all that Augustin had to offer, and 
then said that he did not think it best himself to change the re- 
ligion of his forefathers, but that he would not forbid Augustin 
and his brother monks to preach Christianity among the people 
whenever they pleased. The result was, that before a great while 
the whole population was converted to the Christian faith. 

How did. the Anglo-Saxons at length hecome involved in diffi- 
cidty themselves? 

The government of the Anglo-Saxons went on very prosperous- 
ly after this for several generations, until, at length, they became 
i-iv^lved in great difficulty by the invasion of the Danes. 



190 THE DANES. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE DANES. 



Describe the origin and the character of the Danes. 

During the time the Saxon kings were reigning in England, a 
very extraordinary race of men were gradually rising to import- 
ance and power on the German Ocean and on the adjacent seas. 
They came, of course, originally from the land, but they lived al- 
most wholly on the sea, only making occasional visits to the shores 
of the various countries within their reach for purposes of conquest 
and plunder. They were, in fact, little better than an organized na- 
tion of pirates. As they came originally from Denmark and Nor- 
way, and other countries on the shores of the Baltic Sea and Ger- 
man Ocean, they are in English history commonly called Danes. 
They were under the dominion of a race of chieftains, who, from 
their being almost always on the water, were called sea-kings. 

How were such invasions as these regarded in ancient times f 

The work of conquering and plundering a country was, in those 
ages of the world, considered a very honorable and proper employ- 
ment, provided the deed was done by a sufficiently large number 
of people, and on a great enough scale. So these sea-kings, though 
really pirates and robbers, w^ere considered honorable men, and 
many young persons, from high families on the Continent, used 
to come and enter their service from time to time, in order to see 
the world, and learn the art of seamanship and war. 

Describe the chaixtcters and modes of life of the sea-Mngs. 

It is true that the life which these sea-kings led exposed them 
to almost every kind of hardship and suffering. The seas which 
they frequented were subject to perpetual storms, and often, when 
they attempted to approach a coast, the wind, rising suddenly, 
dashed them against the rocky and iron-bound shore. At other 



THE DANES. 



191 




THE SEA-KINGS. 



times, when they had been unsuccessM in their enterprises, they 
were driven out to sea again with insufficient supplies of food, and 
in the most boisterous weather. Still nothing daunted them. In 
fact, they became themselves in time as rough and as indomitable 
as the very storms with which they were accustomed to contend. 
What was the final result of the invasion of the sea-king sf 
During the period of English history to which we have now ar- 
rived, that is, about Anno Domini 850, these sea-kings began to 
make descents upon the English territory. They succeeded at 
length in establishing themselves firmly upon the coast, and final- 
ly in obtaining possession of a large part of the country, and the 
Anglo-Saxons found infinite difficulty in expelling them. The 
contests continued, in fact, for twenty years, and the period is 
known in the history of England as the period of the Wars with 
THE Danes. 



192 THE DANES. 

W/io loas Ragnar Lodbrogf 

One of the first of the sea-kings that invaded England was 
named Kagnar Lodbrog. His father was a prince or chieftain of 
some sort in Norway, and he himself married a Danish princess, 
but he was driven away from his wife's kingdom by the power of 
a rival chieftain, and so he took to the sea. He obtained some 
ships, collected together a company of desperate followers for 
crews, and made himself a sea-king. 

Describe the plans tJiat he formed for invading Britain, 

After cruising about some time in the German Ocean and in the 
English Channel, and making several successful descents upon the 
coast, he finally resolved on attempting an incursion into England. 
So he built two very large ships, and rigged and equipped them 
in the most perfect manner. He manned them, too, with the most 
daring and desperate of his followers, knowing well that in land- 
ing in England he would have to encounter very formidable en- 
emies. 

What course did the exjyecUtion take in coming to the country f 

Finally, when all was ready, he set sail with his ships toward 
/ the coast of Scotland. He followed the coast for some time to 
the southward, and at length approached the English shores on 
the confines of the kingdom of Northumbria, which was the most 
northerly of the seven Saxon kingdoms. Here he landed, and 
began to advance into the interior. 

Who came forth to meet him ? Describe the battle and the 
result of it. 

It was not long before the king of the country, whose name was 
Ella, came down to meet him at the head of a great force. A bat- 
tle ensued. Ragnar and his men fought like tigers. They knew 
that if they were defeated there was no hope of their being able to 
escape, for their enemies would certainly never allow them time to 
embark again, even if they were to succeed in making their way 
back to their vessels. They made, however, the most desperate 



THE DANES. 193 

attempts to get to the shore again when they found that the bat- 
tle was going against them. Three times they broke through the 
lines of their opposers, and three times the enemy closed up again 
between them and the sea, so as to cut off their retreat. At leno-tli 
the whole band were cut to pieces, except Lodbrog himself and a 
few others, who were taken prisoners. 

Hoio ivas Loclhrog said to have been jntnished f 

It is said that Ella, in his exasperation and rage against Lod- 
brog for coming thus without any provocation to invade his ter- 
ritories, caused a den to be filled with vipers and other poisonous 
reptiles, and then shut Lodbrog up in it with them. The animals 
instantly killed him with their venomous bites and stings. 

This was the end of the first invasion of England by the Danes. 

What was probably Ella's design in inflicting this horrid pun- 
ishment on Lodbrog f 

Probably Ella thought that, by putting Lodbrog to this horrid 
death, he should strike terror into the Danes, and prevent any 
others from repeating the attempt to invade his dominions. But 
if he did reason in this way he was in error. A just and reason- 
able punishment tends, it is true, to deter other men from repeat- 
ing a crime, but a cruel and an excessive one only awakens their 
anger, and inflames them with a spirit of resentment and revenge. 
What was, in reality, the effect p>'^'oduced by this cruelty f De- 
scmbe the new enterprise undertaken by the Dajies. 

Such, at any rate, was the effect that was produced in this in- 
stance. When the other Danes heard how barbarously their fel- 
low-countryman had been treated, they at once resolved to avenge 
his death. The sons and the relatives of Ragnar Lodbrog took 
the lead in this enterprise. They proceeded very carefully and 
deliberately in forming their plans. They communicated their de- 
signs to a great many different chieftains, and invited them to join 
in the enterprise. In this way they formed a great confederation. 
There were eight kings and twenty earls, as they were called, in 

I 



194 



THE DANES. 




ARMS AND COSTUME OF THE DANES. 



the alliance. The commanders of the expedition were two cele- 
brated kings, named Guthrum and Hubba. Hubba was one of 
Hagnar Lodbrog's sons. 

W/iat occurred on the landing of the expedition f 
When all was ready, the expedition set sail for England. They 



THE DANES. 195 

landed without encountering any resistance. It is probable that 
the Saxons did not know where they intended to land. The 
Danes, after leaving their ships, advanced a little way into the in- 
terior of the country, and then encamped. Here they quietly es- 
tablished themselves as if they were at home, and began to make 
preparations for spending the winter. It was late in the fall when 
they landed. 

What ivere the usual habits of life of these men ? 

Indeed, they were at home, as much so, at least, as men living 
the lives of pirates and marauders, as they did, could be. They 
seem to have had no regular abodes on land, but spent the time 
in summer in cruising about on the sea in quest of plunder, and 
in winter in some encampment which they made on any accessi- 
ble shore, where they could most readily find shelter and fuel. 

Did the Saxo7is attempt to drive out the invaders during that 
wi7iter f 

The Saxons, or the English as they may now properly be call- 
ed, did not disturb the invaders all that winter. They hoped, per- 
haps, that they had only come to encamp on the ground during 
the cold season, and that they would go away in the spring. 

What occurred in the spring f 

Instead of this, however, as soon as the spring opened, they sent 
for re-enforcements. More sea-kings came, bringing with them 
additional troops. The army was marshaled, and soon began to 
move toward the interior. They directed their course toward 
Northumbria. Their object vfas to take vengeance on Ella for 
what they considered his brutal murder of Eagnar Lodbrog. Ella, 
who had been by some means aware of the danger for some time, 
now, when he found his enemies actually advancing, gathered all 
his forces together, and came to meet them. 

What teas the condition in lohich Ella now found himself 
placed ? What teas the residt of the battle fought f 

He found, however, that it was in vain to attempt to oppose 



196 THE DANES. 

their progress. They were animated with such a spirit of resent- 
ment and anger against him, that they fought with the utmost fury 
in every battle, and almost always conquered. In this way they 
advanced into Ella's dominions, ravaging the country, and bearing- 
down all before them. At last a great pitched battle was fought. 
The English were defeated, and Ella himself was taken prisoner. 
The Danes, as soon as they got the wretched king into their hands, 
put him to death with the most horrid tortures. They then made 
themselves masters of the whole of Northumbria. 

How xoere these proceedings regarded by the other kingdoms 
of the Heptarchy f 

By this time the other kingdoms of the Heptarchy began to be 
alarmed. The several kingdoms were in some degree separate 
from each other, though they had been some time before nominal- 
ly united. 

Who was JEthelred, and what expectations did he form f 

The king who was considered the supreme ruler over all of them 
at this time was Ethelred. Ethelred hoped that when the Danes 
had accomplished what he supposed had been their chief design in 
coming to England, namely, to wreak their vengeance on Ella for 
the murder of Eagnar Lodbrog, they would go back to their ships 
and leave the island altogether. 

What was the actual result ? 

But this was far from their design. When they found how 
easily they succeeded in conquering the Saxons in Northumbria, 
they concluded to go on and take possession of other parts of the 
island. Guthrum and Hubba sent to the Baltic Sea for more 
troops, and there were plenty of sea-kings all along the coasts of 
Norway and Denmark that were ready to accept the invitation as 
soon as they received it, and thus, in a short time, the forces under 
Guthrum and Hubba's command were greatly increased. 

Describe the subsequent career of the Danes in Britain, 

With this large force, which was continually growing larger by 



THE DANES. 197 

fresh arrivals, the Danes commenced a career of conquest in En- 
gland which continued for several years, and which ended in their 
gaining almost complete possession of the island. The parts of 
the country which submitted to them they colonized and settled 
with their own men, ruling the Saxons, and reducing them to com- 
plete subjection. Those that resisted they ravaged with fire and 
sword. The king, Ethelred, made every exertion in his power to 
resist them, but all was in vain. 

Hoio did the Danes deal loith the convents and monasteries f 

The Danes took particular pleasure, while they were thus over- 
running the Saxon territories, in attacking monasteries and abbeys 
wherever they found them, on account of the treasures which they 
often contained. These monasteries were the residences of monks 
and nuns, who spent their lives in retirement, pursuing studies of 
various kinds, instructing youth, and performing the exercises of 
devotion. These establishments were all held sacred by the Sax- 
ons themselves, and in the wars which the different kingdoms 
waged with each other they were not disturbed. But the Danes, 
being pagans, paid no regard to any sacredness either of places or 
things, and they accordingly plundered the convents and monas- 
teries in the most unscrupulous and merciless manner. This led 
to many scenes of great sorrow and suffering. 

Describe the situation and condition of the Abbey of Croioland. 

One of the most remarkable of these cases was that of tlie Ab- 
bey of Crowland. This establishment was situated in the eastern 
part of England, near the shore of a great shallow bay, which you 
will find iaid down on the map of England under the name of the 
Wash. This Abbey of Crowland was a large and wealthy estab- 
lishment. It possessed a great deal of land, and the tenants who oc- 
cupied and tilled it were in some degree under the monks' control. 

What was it that aroused the hostility of the Danes against 
the abbey f 

At one time the monks sent two hundred and fifty men to the 



198 THE DANES. 

army, to assist in fighting against the Danes. This enraged the 
Danes, and so they determined that when they reached that part 
of the country they would plunder and destroy the abbey. 

Describe the ejects produced at the abbey by the apj[>roach of 
the Danes. 

When the monks heard that they were coming, they were in 
great terror and dismay. They determined to remove all their 
treasures ; so they packed them in boats as fast as they could, and 
sent them down the river, and there buried them in the ground, 
in a solitary place in the woods where an old hermit lived. They 
took with them, too, all the strong men that belonged to the mon- 
astery, and left only the old and infirm behind. 

How were the Danes received by the nnonhs that ivere left at 
the abbey f 

These old men clothed themselves in their priestly robes, and 
went into the chapel, and employed themselves there in singing 
hymns and saying prayers, thinking that if the Danes found them 
thus engaged, they would spare their lives out of regard to their 
age and their sacred character. But they were greatly mistaken. 

What ivas the fate of the jpriests ? 

The ferocious Danes, full of resentment and anger, broke into 
the monastery, and then, rushing into the chapel, tliey began 
slaughtering the venerable priests, in the midst of their devotions, 
without any mercy. 

Was any joerson saved? 

Indeed, of all the people that were found in the monasteries 
when the Danes arrived, only one was saved, and he was a small 
boy. His name was Turgar. 

How was he saved? 

This boy was saved by a sort of stratagem. One of the Danish 
chiefs, named Sidroc, saw him standing there in great terror and 
distress, and took pity on him. He went to him, and gave him a 
Danish garment. "Put that on/' said he, " and follow me. Keep 



KING ALFRED THE GREAT. 199 

as close by my side as you can." The boy did so, and the Danisli 
soldiers supposed that he was a Dane. Thus he escaped with 
his life. 

What was the sequel of Turgar's story f 

After this, Turgar followed Sidroc and the Danes for some days, 
but at length he succeeded in making his escape from them. He 
watched his opportunity when they were crossing a river at a ford 
with some wagons loaded with treasures. One of the wagons be- 
came set, the wheels sinking in the sand. While Sidroc and his 
men were busy with the wagon, Turgar ran off into the woods, 
and finally got back to the monastery, where he found the monks 
at work in sadness and sorrow repairing the ruins. 

What ivas the final result of the invasion of the Danes? 

The Danes went on in this way, conquering one province after 
another of the kingdom, and seizing all the treasures which they 
could find. At last, Ethelred, the king of the country, w^as killed, 
and the Saxon power seemed to be entirely overthrown. 

What distinguished prince now succeeded to the throne f 

The rightful heir of Ethelred was his brother Alfred, a prince 
who, though his prospects, at the commencement of his reign, were 
so exceedingly dark and gloomy, subsequently triumphed over all 
his foes, and acquired the highest renown. He is known in his- 
tory as Alfred the Great. 



CHAPTER y. 

KING ALFRED THE GREAT. 

Af^ohat age had Alfred learned to read? 

The engraving on the following page represents young Alfred, 
when he was a boy about twelve years old,, leaning upon his 
mother's lap, and showing her that he knew how to read, having 
studied and learned of his own accord. 



200 



KING ALFRED THE GREAT. 




ALFRED READING TO HIS bTEPMOTllEIi. 



. Give an account of AlfrecVs mother, and of his stepmother, 

Alfred's own mother was the queen Osburgha, the wife of the 
Saxon king Ethelwolf, who reigned before the time of the incur- 
sions of the Danes. She had four children, all sons. Alfred was 



KING ALFRED THE GEEAT. 201 

the youngest. Osburglia died not very long after Alfred was born. 
Afterward, when Alfred was ten or twelve years old, his father 
married a young French princess named Judith, and she, of course, 
was Alfred's stepmother. She was very kind to the children, as 
stepmothers usually, though not always, are, notwithstanding what 
is often said to the contrary. 

What sort of books were tcsecl in those days f 

There were no printed books in those days, but the monks and 
scholars in the monasteries used to write books with the pen. 
These books were written in very beautiful characters, with small 
pictures here and there on the pages, in rich and elegant coloring. 
These little paintings were called illuminations. 

Hoio did it ha2)jpen that Alfred was not taught to read before 
he was twelve years old? 

Alfred's mother possessed one of these books. She had brought 
it from France. She had been taught to read there, though this 
was unusual, for, books being very scarce in those days, very few 
persons except clerks and professed scholars were ever taught to 
read. Alfred and his brothers, though they were royal princes, 
and though great pains had been taken with their education in ev- 
ery other point, had never been taught their letters. 

JIoxo did he finally become interested in learning to readf 

Judith showed the four boys her book, and they were all ex- 
tremely pleased with it. They could not understand the reading, 
it is true, but they admired the beauty of the characters, and they 
were especially delighted with the illuminations. Judith told them 
that she was glad to see that they were pleased with the book, and 
she said that she would give it to that one of them who would 
first learn to read it. 

How did he learn ? 

Alfred immediately resolved to learn. He found some clerk or 
scholar in the palace who was willing to teach him, and in due 
time he came to his mother and let her see that he could read the 



202 KING ALFEED THE GREAT. 

book. She was much pleased to find how well he had learned, 
and she gave him the book according to her promise. 

~W hat progress in study did he subsequently make ? 

Alfred afterward read and studied a great deal, so that he be- 
came, in the end, one of the greatest scholars, as well as one of the 
most distinguished sovereigns of his time. 

How was it that Alfred ivas Ethelred's successor? 

Ethelred, the king who governed England at the time that the 
Danes commenced their invasions, was Alfred's eldest brother. He 
had no children, and, of course, when he died, Alfred was his Iieir, 
his other brothers having died before him. Ethelred was killed 
in battle fighting with the Danes. Alfred was with him in the 
battle, and was fighting by his side when he received his mortal 
wound. Alfred was then about twenty-three years old. 

What was his first duty^ and hoio did he jperfonn it? 

The first thing that Alfred had to attend to was the burial 
of his brother. Besides the obvious propriety of performing the 
ceremony in a respectful manner, there was an additional duty 
in this case, that of placing the body in some safe place, where 
the savage and ferocious Danes could not find it. So he took it 
away to a remote and solitary place, and their buried it in a very 
deep grave. 

Describe the condition in which he found the Saxon army 
when he returned to the field. 

When he returned to the field, he endeavored to gatlier the Sax- 
on army together again ; but they were so scattered, discouraged, 
and enfeebled that nothing could be done. They had lost their 
king. Alfred, the rightful successor, had not been proved. He 
was a very young man, and no one knew how much or what he 
could do. It was not reasonable to suppose that he could rescue 
the country from the dreadful danger in which it had become in- 
volved. In a word, the people seemed to be entirely disheartened 
and discouraged. 



KING ALFRED THE GEE AT. 203 

What measure did he then adopt in order to ])rotect his own 
Jcingdom f 

Accordingly, after getting together what force he could, he en- 
tered into negotiations with Hubba, who was then the leader of 
the Danes in that part of the island. Alfred's particular kingdom 
was Wessex. It laj in the western part. So he agreed with 
Hubba that if he, Hubba, would leave him in peace in that por- 
tion of the island, he, Alfred, would not molest Hubba in any other 
portions. Hubba, after making this compact, left Alfred in peace, 
and went away to plunder and ravage the other divisions of the 
general territory. 

Ifow did this jplan succeed f 

Alfred gained very little good by this measure. In the first 
place, all the other Saxon princes and chieftains blamed him very 
much for making a separate peace, for his own particular family 
domain, while he left the country at large to the mercy of the en- 
emy. What Alfred had to say in reply to this accusation I do 
not know. 

Give an account of the exjpedition of Half den. 

Then, besides, the peace for himself, that he secured by his 
treaty, was not substantial or durable, for before long a new party 
of Danes arrived on his coasts. They were under the command 
of a prince named Halfden. Halfden landed on the southern coast, 
and his first exploit was to take possession of one of Alfred's best 
castles there for his head-quarters, and from this castle he began 
to make excursions into the surrounding country, plundering and 
murdering T\herever he came. 

Hoio did Alfred attempt to defend his dominions from Half- 
den? 

Alfred immediately sent to expostulate with him, saying that 
he had made a treaty with Hubba by which his particular part of 
the island was to be held sacred, and not to be invaded by the 
Danes any more. To this Halfden replied that he had nothing to 



204 KING ALFRED THE GEEAT. 

do with Hubba or with Hubba's treaty. He was an independent 
chieftain, acting for himself, and was not to be bound by any 
treaties but his own. 

Relate what took place in respect to the squadron of horse. 

So the war went on ; and in a short time after this, Halfden and 
his band greatly strengthened themselves by seizing a squadron 
of horse which belonged to Alfred's army. Of course, they could 
not bring horses over with them very well in their vessels, and 
thus far they had been obliged to fight with foot-soldiers alone. 
But now they contrived to capture a squadron of horse, and after 
dismounting and driving off the riders, they took the horses them- 
selves, and thenceforward were much more formidable than they 
had been before. 

IIoio long did Alfred'' s adverse fortune continue? 

Things went on in this way for two or three years, during all 
which time the affairs of Alfred, and of all the Saxons, were going 
from bad to worse, until at last the people all became completely 
discouraged. 

Describe Alfred'' s attempt to build a fleet. 

There was one measure, however, which Alfred adopted during 
this period, which in the end led to great results. It was an at- 
tempt that he made to build a fleet. He called together a num- 
ber of the principal Saxon chieftains, and represented to them that 
they ought to have a fleet, so as to attack the Danes on the sea 
before they reached the island, instead of waiting till they had 
landed, and then attempt to expel them again. The chiefs all 
agreed to this proposal, and they immediately took measures, un- 
der Alfred's directions, to build the fleet. They had many diffi- 
culties to encounter in accomplishing this purpose, and especially 
in procuring sailors to man the ships ; but at last they succeeded, 
and the fleet was ready for sea. 

What occurred at the time of the first sailing of the fleet f 

When the day appointed for its sailing came, immense numbers 



KING ALFEED THE GEE AT. 205 

of people assembled on the shores to witness the spectacle. This 
was the first English fleet, and it is greatly celebrated in history 
as the origin of that vast and unrivaled naval power that has since 
made itself the wonder and admiration of the world. 
What was the first exploit that the fleet performed f 

The fleet was quite successful at first. It encountered a squad- 
ron of Danish ships in the channel and defeated them. But, after 
all, it could guard only a small part of the coast, and so, in spite 
of all that it could do, the Danes still continued to make descents 
on the portions of the coast that were unprotected. 

What ivas, after this, the co7idition of Alfred^ affairs in his 
Tcingdom f 

At length, about seven or eight years after Alfred's accession to 
the throne, a greater company than ever came over, and, after mak- 
ing some marauding excursions in other parts of the island, they 
came at length directly into Alfred's dominions. His resources 
were now so wellnigh exhausted that he had no means of resist- 
ing them. The little that remained to him of an army soon dis- 
persed, leaving Alfred with only a few attendants and friends. 
These, one after another, forsook him too, and then he was left en- 
tirely alone, a houseless, homeless fugitive. His career as a mon- 
arch seemed to be at an end. Even his wife was not with him. 
He had concealed her previously in the safest retreat that he could 
find, so that he seemed now to be utterly friendless and alone. 

llelate his adventures in finding a place of shelter. 

After wandering about for some time in woods and solitudes, he 
at length came to a very secluded place, in the western part of En- 
gland, Avhere a cowherd lived. The place was a sort of island in 
the midst of a region of marshes and stagnant water. Alfred push- 
ed his way through the thickets until he came to the cowherd's 
hut. He told the cowherd secretly that he was a Saxon chieftain 
that had been defeated by the Danes, and asked the man to let 
him stay for a while in his hut. The cowherd consented, and pre- 



206 



KING ALFRED THE GEEAT. 



tended to employ him as a hired man, in order that his wife migh^ 
not know who the stranger was. 

Relate the incident of Alfred^ s heiyig set to ivatch the cakes. 

It was while Alfred was at this cowherd's house that the famous 
incident occurred of his letting the cakes burn. The cowherd's 
wife, it seems, one evening, when he came home from his work, 
asked him to watch some cakes that she was baking at the fire 
while she was busy elsewhere. "Watch them," said she, "and 
don't let them burn. Call me when they are done." So she went 
away, leaving Alfred by the fire. 




ALFRED LETTING THE CAKES BURN. 



What was the sequel of the story f 

But Alfred, who was busy making a bow, forgot the cakes, and 
when the woman came she found them burned black. She was 
in a great rage. She told him that he was always ready enough 
to eat the cakes, but that he was too idle and good for nothing to 



KING ALFEED THE GREAT. 207 

Jo any thing in helping to bake them. The good woman little 
knew that it was a king that she was scolding. 

What plans and arra7igements did Alfred Tuake during his 
seclusio7i f 

Alfred remained in this place of seclusion for some time, but at 
length he gradually contrived to get into communication with some 
of the other chieftains, and they repaired to the place and held 
consultations together there. They matured their plans, and then 
took measures for gathering an army again. They concerted their 
schemes so secretly that the Danes knew nothing of them until 
they had quite a force collected and were ready to take the field. 
What was the first ojperation which the new army undertook? 

As soon as their plans were matured they marched immediately 
to attack the army of the Danes which was nearest to them. It 
was a considerable body of troops, under the command of Hubba. 
Alfred's army came to the place secretly in the night, intending 
to surprise the Danes in their camp. 

Describe the banner of the raven. 

The Danes possessed a banner which they regarded with super- 
stitious veneration. It had a raven embroidered upon it. Hub- 
ba's sisters had made the banner for him, and embroidered the ra- 
ven, and the soldiers believed that it possessed supernatural pow- 
ers. They thought that it would flutter its wings, when they 
were going into battle, if they were destined to gain the victory. 
On the other hand, if they were going to lose the battle, the raven's 
wings would be lifeless and still. The truth was, that as the wind 
waved and fluttered the banner when the soldiers were marching 
with it into the field, it was impossible for them to tell whether 
the wings made any motion of their own or not, and so they might 
imagine it either way. 

Give an account of the battle. 

Alfred and his army came upon the Danish camp in the morn- 
ing just before daybreak, when all except the sentinels were asleep. 



208 KING ALFEED THE GREAT. 

Tliey made so sudden and furious an onset upon them that the 
camp was thrown into the utmost confusion. The men were all 
immediately put to flight. Hubba, the commander, was killed in 
his tent, and the sacred banner was taken. 

What were the immediate effects of this victory f 

The news of this victory spread like wildfire all over England. 
It aroused the Saxons every where, and filled them with encour- 
agement and hope. On the other hand, it greatly depressed and 
disj)irited the Danes. They were especially distressed at the loss 
of the sacred raven. They considered this a very dark omen for 
them. 

Describe the pr evaluations made for a new encounter. 

The Danes gathered their forces and prepared for a general bat- 
tle. Guthrum was the commander of these forces. The Saxons 
rose in arms too, in all parts of the kingdom, and flocked to Alfred's 
standard. After a time the two concentrated armies came together, 
and the great final contest ensued. 
What teas the result of the battle ? 

The Danes were defeated. Guthrum fled, and sought shelter 
in a castle. Alfred pursued him, and shut him up closely in it. 
After a time the two chieftains entered into negotiations for peace, 
and peace was made. 

What were the conditions ofjyeace ? 

Alfred granted to the Danes the right to remain in England, if 
they would live there in quietness as peaceful men ; and Guthrum, 
on the other hand, acknowledged Alfred's sovereignty as monarch 
of England. Guthrum agreed, too, that he and his followers would 
become Christians. This was a part of the treaty, and in the rat- 
ification of it Guthrum and his fellow-chieftains were publicly 
baptized with the greatest ceremony and parade. 
. Describe the sequel of Alfred's reign. 

After this, Alfred reigned over England long and very gloriously. 
He devoted himself to the good of his subjects, and he founded 



KING ALFRED THE GEEAT. 



209 



many of the institutions and made many of the laws to which the 
subsequent power and greatness of the British empire are owing. 
He had a great many difficulties to contend witli, but by his dil- 
igencCi his patience, and his honest fidelity he triumphed over them 
all, and at length came to be universally beloved and venerated 
by his people, Saxons, Danes, and all. 

W/iO tvas Hastings^ and what ex^^loit did he jperform f 
Alfred was often harassed and troubled by the arrival of new 
parties of invaders from the northern seas. There was one of these 
marauders, named Hastings, who came with a fleet of two hundred 
and fifty vessels, and landed on the banks of the Thames. He 
gave Alfred a great deal of trouble. At one time, when hard press- 
ed, he took possession of a church, with all his horde, and fortified 
himself there as if it had been a castle. 




HASTINGS IN THE CHURCH. 

o 



210 THE NOKMAN CONQUEST. 

W/iai teas t/iejlnal result of the expedition of Hastings f 

After a time, however, Alfred succeeded in gaining the victory 
over Hastings, and in driving him away. 

W/ie7i at last Alfred found that his erid was approaching, what 
did he do f 

Alfred suffered a great deal from sickness all his life, and at 
length, when he was about fifty-two years of age, he found that 
his end was approaching. He called his son to his bedside, in 
order to make known to him his dying injunctions. 

liejyeat what he said to his son. 

" Thou, my dear son, sit thee now beside me, and I will deliver 
thee true instructions. I feel that my hour is coming. My 
strength is gone ; my countenance is wasted and pale. My days 
are almost ended. We must now part. I go to another w^orld, 
and thou art to be left alone in the possession of all that I have 
thus far held. I pray thee, my dear child, to be a father to thy 
people. Be the children's father and the widow's friend. Cora- 
fort the poor, protect and shelter the weak, and, with all thy might, 
right that which is wrong. And, my son, govern thyself by law. 
Tlien shall the Lord love thee, and God himself shall be thy re- 
ward. Call thou upon him to advise thee in all thy need, and he 
shall help thee to compass all thy desires." 

Who was Alfred's successor? 

So Alfred died, and his kingdom passed peacefully and quickly 
into the hands of his son. 



CHAPTER YI. 

THE NOEMAN CONQUEST. 

When and hy luhom ivas the Norman conquest effected f 
About one hundred and fifty years after the death of Alfred, a 
great event occurred in English history called the Norman Con- 



THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 



211 



quest. This conquest was effected by a great personage known as 
William the Conqueror. He was originally a Duke of Normandy. 
State what you can in res^pect to the situation and the early 
history of Normandy. 

Normandy was a very fertile and beautiful part of France, lying 

along the shores of 
the English Chan- 
nel. You will see 
the situation of it 
by reference to the 
adjoining map. It 
was called by the 
name of Normandy 
because it was set- 
tled by the North- 
men — the identical 
class of men thai 
had made so much 
trouble in England 
under the name of 
Danes. The orig- 
inal leader of the 
tribe that settled in 
Normandy was a 
noted warrior call- 
ed Rollo. He land- 
ed at first in England, but was driven off from that island by the 
Saxons, and then he went southward and landed in France. 
Other companies of Northmen afterward joined them, and thej 
made a permanent settlement in France on the banks of the Seine. 
They called their country Normandy. The Normans were gov- 
erned by a line of sovereigns called dukes. William the Con- 
queror was one of these dukes. He was somewhere about the 




ITUATION OF NORMANDV. 



212 THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 

seventh in the line. The circumstances which led him to under- 
takeHhe enterprise of invading England were very peculiar. 

How oiiany royal fainilies clahned the English throne at this 
time, and lohat difficulty arose from this source ? 

Some time after the death of Alfred, the contests between the 
royal family of the Danes and that of the Saxons broke out anew, 
and for several successive reigns the affairs of the kingdom Avere 
quite unsettled, sometimes one dynasty and sometimes the other 
gaining the ascendency. The two families were connected togeth- 
er by intermarriages, and they were also connected in the same 
manner with the dukes of Normandy, so that, in process of time, 
the hereditary claims and rights of the three houses became so in- 
terwoven together, that in some instances, when a monarch hap- 
pened to die without leaving any children to inherit his crown di- 
rectly, it was, in truth, difficult to tell who the rightful heir was. 

What two persons claimed the throne on the death of King 
Edward the Confessor ? 

A great difficulty occurred at the death of a certain king of the 
Anglo-Saxon line known in history as Edward the Confessor. 
He died without issue. There was a relative of his in England, 
named Harold, who claimed to be the true heir to the crown. 
But William, the Duke of Normandy, claimed that he was the heir. 

What tvas the sjMcial gronnd of William^ s claim f 

William alleged that Edward had expressly appointed him to 
be his successor, and that once, when Harold was on a visit to his 
dominions, some time before King Edward's death, he had taken 
a solemn oath never to claim the crown for himself, but to ac- 
knowledge William's riglit to the succession whenever Edward 
should die. 

What were the circumstances under vjhich Harold took the 
oath, and wms he probably sincere in it f 

Harold was undoubtedly insincere in taking this oath, and he 
probably never had any intention of keeping it. He considered 



THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 213 

himself as not free when he took it, and the rule was in those dajs, 
as indeed it is now, that promises extorted by violence are not bind- 
ing. The oath which Harold took was not, however, exactly ex- 
torted by violence, at least not by any open violence. Harold 
had been shipwrecked on the coast of France, and had been taken 
captive by the prince of the country in whose dominions he had 
been thrown. William, when he heard of this, sent and ransom- 
ed Harold, and brought him to Normandy. It was while he was 
William's guest in Normandy on this occasion that Harold took 
his oath. 

Hoio teas it that Harold could onaintain that his oath ivas ex- 
torted hy violence f 

There was no actual violence used on the part of William to 
extort the oath from Harold. On the contrary, William treated 
his gaest with the greatest outward kindness and consideration. 
Bat then Harold knew very well that, notwithstanding all these 
external appearances, he was really, to all intents and purposes, o 
prisoner, and that his only hope of being allowed to return to En- 
gland at all would be in his ready compliance with all that Will- 
iam might demand of him. So he took the oath with every ap- 
pearance of honesty, but with a secret determination to pay no re- 
gard to it w^Iiatever when the time for action should come. Will- 
iam, however, was satisfied, and so, after a time, he dismissed his 
guest in peace, and Harold returned to England. 

What 'measures did Harold adojpt on his return to England f 

Harold immediately began to form his plans for securing the 
succession to himself as soon as Edward should die, by strength- 
ening his connections with the leading nobles of the land, and 
forming a party to espouse his cause. William heard of these 
doings, and so was satisfied that Harold did not intend to keep 
his oath. There was nothing to be done, however, until Edward 
should die, for neither of them claimed any right to the throne 
during Edward's lifetime. 



214 



THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 



Relate the circumstances that attended William^ s 7'ecewing the 
news of Edward'' s death. 

The news of Edward's death came to William suddenly one 
day while he was in his park trying a new bow and arrow that 
had been made for him. A horseman came riding into the ring, 




:e\vs of edwaPwD s death. 



and, advancing rapidly to William's side, he communicated the 
tidings to him in a whisper. William was greatly agitated. He 
dropped his arrow upon the ground, and gave the bow to an at- 
tendant. He then stood for a moment lost in thought, tying and 
untying the cord of his cloak all the time, in his abstraction. 
Presently he began to move slowly away. His attendants fol- 
lowed him, wondering what the news was which had produced so 
great an effect upon him. 

What ivas the effect that the neim jproduced njjon him? 

William was for a time greatly at a loss to know what to do. 



THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 215 

He liad heard that Harold had quietly succeeded to the throne of 
England, and that the whole country had acquiesced. Of course, 
for him to raise an army, cross the Channel, and attempt to seize 
the kingdom by force would be a very hazardous undertaking. 

What was Fitz Oshorri's counsel f 

In his perplexity, one of his counselors, named Fitz Osborn, a 
great officer of state, approached him, saying, " This difficulty, sire, 
can be very easily remedied. You have the right to the Englisli 
throne, and you have soldiers enough to enforce your right. Un- 
dertake the enterprise without fear. You will be sure to succeed."' 

What ivas William''s decision f 

William finally resolved to follow this counsel. He first, how- 
ever, sent an embassage to Harold, calling upon him to surrender 
the English crown according to the oath he had taken. This did 
no good ; and William accordingly resolved on making war. 

What were the jpro^osals that he made to his nobles ? 

He summoned around him the chief nobles of Normandy, and 
asked them how many were disposed to accompany him on the en- 
terprise, and how many ships and men they could severally fur- 
nish. He promised them that if he was successful in gaining his 
kingdom, lie would reward them liberally with lands and titles of 
nobility, and would enrich them also with the treasures which he 
expected to receive by confiscating the property of the English 
nobles who should oppose him. 

How were these projposals received? 

The Norman chieftains embraced the scheme very eagerly. 
They put down the number of ships and men that they could re- 
spectively furnish, and William found, when these were enregister- 
ed, that he should Jiave an armament as large as he desired. 

Describe the sailing of the expedition and its ])assctge across 
the Channel, 

The expedition was appointed to rendezvous at the mouth of a 
small river on the coast of France. In due time it set sail. The 



216 



THE NOKMAX CONQUEST. 



fleet was very large. It contained sixty thousand men. The 
troops were all landed in safety on the English coast, near the 
Straits of Dover. The army encamped not far from the shore, on 
elevated ground near the town of Hastings, which is a small town 
lying on tlie coast, at the foot of a valley opening toward the sea. 




What was the effect produced in Enrjlcmd hy the landing of 
the expedition f 

The whole country was now in a state of great alarm. Scouts 
and couriers from the army were galloping about in all directions, 
reconnoitring the ground. The inhabitants of the neighboring 
villages were flying from their dwellings, carrying with them ev- 
ery thing that they could move. 

What were the measures adopted hy Harold? 

King Harold advanced from the north with a great army to 
meet the invaders. He sent round a fleet of seven hundred ships 
too, by sea, to intercept the retreat of the Normans. He was sure, 
he thought, of conquering them in the battle that was to ensue^ 
and, in order to make the most of his victory, lie wished to cut off 
their retreat. He came with his army to the neighborhood of 



THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 217 

Hastino-g, and there encamped at no great distance from tlie ene- 
my. Both sides were preparing for battle. 

Describe the attemjpts that were made to settle the dispute with- 
out a battle. 

Before the actual conflict commenced, some time was spent in 
tVuitless negotiations. Proposals w^ere made on both sides, but 
the parties could not come to any terras. Accordingly, on the 
morning of the second day, they drew out their lines in order of 
battle, and prepared for the fight. 

■Describe the ceremony ivith lohich the battle commenced. 

A powerful Norman knight rode out first from the lines, bidding 
the English defiance, and claiming the right of striking the first 
blow. He came out singing a ballad, and swinging and flourish- 
ing his sword, and throwing it up into the air from time to time, 
catching it in his hand with great dexterity when it came down. 
The whole line of soldiers behind him joined in the chorus of the 
song that he sang. 

What became of the Norman hiight ? 

He advanced to the English lines and ran one soldier through 
the body. A second he felled to the ground. In attacking a 
third, however, he was mortally wounded himself. The other 
soldiers of the two armies had in the mean time rushed forward, 
and the battle now became general. Both sides fought w^ith the 
utmost fury. 

Describe the result of the battle. 

The end of it was, that the English army was routed and driven 
from the field. The battle, however, lasted all day long. When 
night came, the field was covered with the bodies of the dead and 
dying, and the surrounding country was filled with flying bands 
of the English soldiers, now urging their way onward by the light 
of the moon, through fields and thickets, and now turning back to 
fight their pursuers. In the morning, William found that he had 
gained a great victory, and lost one quarter of his men. 



218 THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 

W/iat was the result of the battle in respect to Harold and to 
Williain f 

Harold was killed. An arrow pierced his eye and entered his 
brain. His party, however, did not yet surrender, and the wars 
between William and the English line were protracted for seven 
long years, at the end of which time the country was entirely sub- 
dued, and William found himself the undisputed monarch of En- 
gland. It is in consequence of his having obtained the crown in 
this way that he is styled in history William the Conqueror. 

Describe the arrangements that William "made in respect to 
the kingdom. 

In order to secure the crown more effectually to himself and his 
posterity, William now parceled out the kingdom among his great 
lords and generals, and conferred upon them all the great offices 
of state. He introduced the Norman language, a species of French, 
into the court, and into all the public proceedings of the govern- 
ment. 

What disposition did William, make of the property of the 
English nobles f 

He confiscated the property of the former English nobles, and 
enriched his own nobles with it, and so thoroughly did he do this 
work, that the families that he thus founded, and their descend- 
ants, constitute the oldest and most highly honored portion of the 
great English aristocracy that govern England so entirely at the 
present day. 

How do the English people now regard the descendants of the 
Normans ? 

The English people have long since ceased to resist or even to 
dislike their conquerors ; on the contrary, they look up to them 
with the utmost pride and veneration. Nothing gives a family a 
greater weight in their estimation, or constitutes a higher claim to 
their regard, than to say that their ancestors came in with the 
Conqueror. 



THE NOEMAN CONQUEST. 219 

How would it prohabhj have heeii in such a case vnth Amer- 
icans f 

In America the feeling would be exactly the reverse. Tlie peo- 
ple of this country could not tolerate for a day the idea of being 
governed by a class who, however long ago, came into the country 
as foreigners and conquered it, and now hold it as a conquest. 
They might be compelled by superior force to submit, but they 
would be exceedingly restive under such a rule, and would be 
greatly ashamed of their subjection, not proud of it. 

What was the character of Williani's achninist7xUion ? 

William governed the realm of England very wisely — that is, 
he was very adroit and sagacious in the measures which he adopt- 
ed for consolidating his power, and securing the government of the 
country wholly, or almost wholly, to his friends and adherents. 

Narrate the circumstances of William's quarrel with Philip. 

The circumstances of William's death were very remarkable. 
Philip, the King of France, who was in some sense his sovereign 
as Duke of Normandy, was never friendly to him, especially after 
he became King of England, and in various ways gave him a great 
deal of trouble. Toward the latter part of his life William be- 
came very corpulent, and at one time when he was in Normandy 
— for he went over several times to his old home — he was under 
some medical treatment for this difficulty which confined him to 
his bed. While he was in this situation, Philip spoke of him in 
a very contemptuous and insulting manner, by asking some one 
from Normandy, who came to his court, if the old woman was still 
in the straw. When William heard of this he was dreadfully en- 
raged, and declared that, as soon as he got out again, he would 
come and kindle up such fires in Philip's dominions as should 
make his realms too hot to hold him. 

What vxcs the end of this quarrel ? 

Accordingly, when he was released from his confinement, he 
made war upon Philip, and in the course of it. when riding through 



220 



RICHAKD THE CEUSADER. 



a town that they were storming, his horse stepped on some burn- 
ing embers, and gave so sudden a start, that William, in the ef- 




DEATH OK ^VILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 



fort to save himself, broke a blood-vessel, or inflicted upon him- 
self some other internal injury, and so he died. 



CHAPTER VII. 

EICHARD THE CEUSADEE. 

What was the general condition of the country for the next 
hundred years after the death of William ? 

William the Conqueror died A.D. 1087. After his death the 
kingdom of England was governed by a line of sovereigns, the 
successors of William, for about a hundred years, during which 
time a great many remarkable events occurred, w^hich can not be 



RICHARD THE CRUSADER. 221 

here particularly related. Wars were continiiallv breaking out 
between the different princes of this line ; for often, when one king 
died, there were several of his relatives — brothers, cousins, or sons 
— that rose to claim the throne ; and, in these cases, the several 
claimants would usually raise armies and fight for the succession. 

W/iat loei-'e the feelings which subsisted between the peoj)le of 
the country and their conquerors during this j)e^"iod? 

The people hated their conquerors, and looked upon them as 
foreign invaders. They were, indeed, in all respects foreigners. 
Most of the nionarchs of the time were born in France, and they 
lived most of the time in France, and tliey regarded their domin- 
ions on the Continent as the most important part of their realm. 
England was considered simply in the light of a conquered province. 

In ichat difficulties icere the successors of WilUarn involved 
in resj)ect to their possessions in Normandy ? 

Before long the different branches of the family became involved 
in various quarrels in respect to their possessions in Normandy 
and other parts of France, for they still retained these possessions 
after acceding to the throne of England. In the course of these 
wars and commotions, a great many remarkable and curious inci- 
dents occurred, wiiicli it is very entertaining to read in the differ- 
ent histories of England. 

Relate the circumstances attending the death of Williain 
Ilufus ? 

One of the most striking of these occurrences was the death of 
one of the kings named William Rufus. He was hunting in a 
great forest which William the Conqueror had formed by laying 
waste a large tract of ground and planting trees all over it. This 
forest was many miles in extent. William Eufus was hunting in 
it one day, and, being in a remote part of the wood, alone with one 
of his officers named Tyrrel, a hart came by, and Tyrrel attempt- 
ing to shoot it, his arrow glanced against a tree and struck the king 
in the side, and killed him instantly. Tyrrel was so terrified at 



222 



RICHARD THE CRUSADER. 




ULATH Of \\ILLIAM RUFUS, 



what he had done that he galloped off at once out of the wood, and 
made all haste across the country to the sea-shore, and there em- 
barked for Normandy. 

How did King Richard the First distinguish himself? 

There were various other extraordinary occurrences that took 
place during this period of English History, but we must pass on 
to the time of Richard the Crusader. He is known also in history 
as Richard I. There were two other Richards after him. Rich- 
ard I., as his surname the Crusader imports, distinguished himself 
greatly by his exploits and adventures in the Crusades. 

^Yhat were the Crusades, and hoio did they originate f 

The Crusades were expeditions that the princes and nobles of 
England and France made to conquer Jerusalem and the Holy Land 



EICHARD THE CRUSADER. 223 

from the Turks. Even as early as the time of Alfred, it began to 
be the custom of people to make pilgrimages to Jerusalem, to visit 
the places there that were consecrated in their view by being the 
scenes of the great events of our Savior's history. They thought 
there was a great merit in doing this, and that, however guilty they 
might have been in their lives, this pilgrimage would atone for their 
sins, and make them fit for heaven. Now Jerusalem, at this time, 
was in the hands of the Turks, and they, feeling no veneration for 
these sacred places, and no love for the Christians who came to see 
them, were accustomed to insult the pilgrims, and maltreat them 
in various ways. The princes and nobles of Europe accordingly 
conceived the idea of raising an army of volunteers, and, marching 
to Palestine, to take the country away from the Turks altogether. 
They formed several expeditions of this kind, which are called the 
Crusades. The people who went were called Crusaders.* 

What ivas liicharcrs character ? 

This Richard the Crusader received the surname, while he lived, 
of Cceur de Lion, which means Lion Heart. The name was given 
to him on account of his headlong and reckless bravery. But his 
heart, if it was like tliat of a lion, was a very bad heart. He was 
an overbearing, cruel, and treacherous man, an undutiful son, a 
faithless friend, and a tyrannical monarch. He was disobedient 
and rebellious toward his father while his father lived, and by his 
undutiful conduct did a great deal to bring him in sorrow to the 
grave. But then, as soon as his father was dead, he turned against 
all those who had been joined with him in his treasonable and re- 
bellious practices, and put them to death, for fear that they might 
now join some one else in plotting against him. 

What did lUcharcVs brother John think of his brothers going 
on a crusade ? 

Soon after he succeeded to the throne, he joined with Pliilip of 

* The word comes from a word meaning the cross. The cross was the emblem 
that the Crusaders carried on their banners. 



224 EICHARD THE CRUSADER. 

France to go on a crusade. He liad a brother named John. John 
was very glad when he heard of this plan. He hoped that Rich- 
ard would be killed while he was gone, and then he would inherit 
the throne in his place. 

Describe the j^re^ai^ations and arrangements which Richard 
and Philip made for the expedition, and for rccising money. 

Richard and Philip raised an immense army for their crusade. 
It consisted, it was said, of a hundred thousand men. In order to 
raise money for the expenses of the expedition, Richard sold the 
public lands of the kingdom, and even the castles and some of the 
towns. He put up the public offices, too, for sale to the highest 
bidder, and thus sacrificed the interests of his kingdom in the most 
reckless manner, in order to raise money just for the purpose of 
gratifying his own love of fighting and glory. When some one 
of his counselors remonstrated with him for the extent to which 
he was carrying these measures, he said he did not care. He 
would sell London itself, if he could find any body to buy it. 

Give an account of the progress of the expedition. 

In due time Richard's army was ready, and was sent across 
the Cliannel to Normandy. Thence, marching tlirough France, it 
was joined by the divisions of the French army, and at length the 
whole force arrived at Lyons. Here Richard's troops were taken 
down the river to Marseilles, and there embarked on board a fleet 
of ships. The ships sailed in the first instance for Sicily, which 
is an island in the j\rediterranean Sea, about half way to the Holy 
Land. Philip, who liad no ships to convey his troops in, was to 
march round by land along the coast, and meet Richard in Sicily 
at an appointed time. 

What toere the circumstances that led the ai^my to rendezvons 
in Sicily f 

One reason why the army were to rendezvous in Sicily on their 
way to the Holy Land was because Richard had a sister there. 
Her name was Joan. She had been married to the King of Sicily, 



EICHAKD THE CRUSADER. 225 

but her liusband had died, and, as she had no children, the nobles 
had placed one of their number, named Tancred, on the throne. 
Tancred had cast Joan into prison, and taken possession of her 
property, which consisted of castles, and towns, and large landed 
estates. Richard stopped at Sicily ostensibly to avenge his sis- 
ter's wrongs, but really to have the pleasure of showing his power 
by lording it over the country, and exacting money from Tancred 
to fill his treasures. He remained here some time, and accom- 
plished all his ends, acting in a high-handed and tyrannical manner. 

What ladies accompanied the expedition f What important 
event took place at Sicily in coniiection with the Lady Beran- 
garia f 

Richard's mother had come out in one of the ships of his squad- 
ron, together with a lady called the Lady Berangaria, whom Rich- 
ard was intending to make his wife. The marriage was performed 
in Sicily, and when the affairs of the country were all settled in 
the island, Richard set sail again with his fleet for the Holy Land, 
taking his mother, his sister, and his wife with him. 

How did Richard agree with his ally Philip f 

While in Sicily, Richard had begun to quarrel with Philip, his 
ally. Philip was displeased with the high-handed and overbear- 
ing manner in which Richard acted, but his remonstrances pro- 
duced no effect. Afterward, when the expedition arrived in the 
Holy Land, the two kings quarreled still more. 

What was Philip'' s first imdertaking ivhen he landed? 

Philip proceeded directly to the Holy Land, and occupied him- 
self in laynig siege to Acre. 

In lohat consisted the iinp>ortance of Acre? 

Acre was a town and fortress in Palestine, on the coast of the 
Mediterranean Sea. It was one of the strongest places in the 
East, and the Crusaders were very earnest to gain possession of it. 
They had besieged it before, and Philip was encamped before it 
when Richard arrived. 

P 



226 



RICHARD THE CRUSADER. 




VIEW OF THE RAMPARTS OF ACRE. 



Describe the scene jpresented before Acre when Richard ar- 
rived. 

There was an immense number of troops in the camp before 
Acre, but they had been greatly reduced by sickness and disasters, 
and were making no progress in the siege. The camp was on high 
land behind the town, so that the soldiers could see Eichard's fleet 
as it approached the bay, and when it anchored in the roadstead 
they hailed its arrival with an astounding clangor of trumpets and 
drums, and every other instrument of martial music then known. 

What was Richard's demeanor on landing ? 

Eichard landed his troops and took possession of the camp as 
if he were the lord and master of it, acting toward Philip and the 
other Christian commanders in the most overbearing and domi- 
neering manner. This made them hate him ; but then, on the 



EICHAED THE CRUSADER. 227 

Other hand, the prodigious strength and prowess which he mani- 
fested in the combats that he fought with the Saracens from time 
to time excited their admiration. 

W/iat is said of his strength and courage f 

He was a man of prodigious personal strength, and of the most 
reckless daring, and he could wield the heavy weapons used in 
those days with dreadful effect. The knights were accustomed 
to wear steel armor in those times, which afforded pretty good 
protection against such w^eapons as aiTow^s, and even spears and 
swords. This steel armor w^as, however, very cumbersome to wear, 
being of itself almost a sufficient load for a man to carry. 

What was the battle-axe^ and how was it used f 

To break through this armor, a heavy weapon called a battle- 
axe was used, which was a sort of hammer, perhaps, rather than 
an axe, being intended to break through the armor of the enemy, 
and crush him to death in spite of it. Richard performed prod- 
igies of strength with his battle-axe. He had had one of these 
weapons made in England expressly for his use. It was made of 
the best of steel, and was said to weigh twenty pounds. 

What ivas the result of the siege of Acre? 

The Christian army fought many partial combats around the 
walls of Acre, but they could not succeed in getting in. They, 
however, invested the city so closely that at last the garrison and 
the inhabitants were reduced to a state of famine, and were obliged 
to surrender. 

Wliat were the terms exacted of the Saracens ? 

In the capitulation, the Christians compelled the Saracens to 
promise that, as a ransom for their lives, they would pay an im- 
mense sum of money, and also deliver up as many as fifteen hund- 
red Christian prisoners which they had taken in the course of the 
war. They also gave up to Ricliard and Philip several thousand 
of their own people as hostages for the fulfillment of these stipu- 
lations. They were allowed forty days for doing it. 



228 EICHARD THE CRUSADEE. 

What was the consequence of the non-fulfillment of these 
terms f 

At the end of the forty days it was found that the Saracens 
could not or would not fulfill their agreement, and so the French 
and the English led their hostages outside the camp and massacred 
them all. The number was between two and three thousand, and 
the most amazing thing connected with this horrid transaction 
was, that it was generally approved throughout the Christian 
world. It was deemed quite a meritorious thing to slaughter so 
many infidels, as the poor Saracens were called. Their only 
crime was that they defended their country. 

Give an account of the Temainder of liicharcVs career z?i PaU 
estine. 

After this, R,ichard spent one or two years in Palestine, roam- 
ing about the country, attacking fortresses and towns, and fight- 
ing desperate pitched battles with Saladin, the chief commander 
of the Saracens, who was almost as famous a hero as he. In this 
campaign he met with a great variety of wonderful adventures and 
hairbreadth escapes. He and Philip quarreled more and more, 
until at last Philip's patience became entirely exhausted, so that 
he abandoned the enterprise and went home. 

What finally induced Richard to return to England? Give 
an account of his voyage. 

Not a great while afterward, Eichard heard from England that 
his brother John was taking possession of the kingdom, so he con- 
cluded to go home too. He accordingly set sail early in the sum- 
mer with a small number of ships, containing his wife, his mother, 
and his sister, and the chief knights and officers that had accom- 
panied him This fleet was dispersed by a storm. The ship that 
the ladies had embarked in reached Sicily in safety, but Richard's 
ship was driven about hither and thither, until at last, since he 
had now lost all his guards and protectors, he was afraid to land 
any where for fear that he might be taken prisoner. He had met 



EICHAED THE CRUSADER. 229 

with the kings and princes of a great many countries that lie along 
the shores of tlie Mediterranean Sea, in the Holy Land, and had 
made them his enemies by his tyrannical and overbearing de- 
meanor, so that he did not dare to land and make himself known 
in any of their dominions. 

In ivhat manner did he attempt to travel in jpassing through 
Germany f 

At last he landed in Germany, on the shores of the Adriatic Sea, 
and attempted to pass through the country in disguise, so as to get 
into England in that way, not daring to let any one know who he 
was. He had plenty of money with him, and a man and a boy 
for his attendants. In order to disguise himself, he put on the 
dress of a pilgrim, and pretended that he was returning from a 
pilgrimage he had been making in the Holy Land. 

Was he skillful in carrying out his disguise? Relate the 
story of the ruhy. 

He did not, however, succeed at all in acting his part. He 
spent his money very freely, which was not at all like a pilgrim. 
On one occasion he sent a valuable ruby as a present to the gov- 
ernor of a town, with a message asking the governor for a pass- 
port for two strangers, a pilgrim and a merchant, that were travel- 
ing through. The governor looked at the ruby, and then at the 
page who brought it, and said, " Go tell your master that I know 
who he is. He is King Richard of England ; but he may go in 
peace." 

Hoio VMS he filially discovered, and what became of him f 

Richard was greatly alarmed at finding that he was thus known, 
and he pressed forward with the utmost diligence. He went three 
days and three nights without entering any house, and he suffered 
a great deal for want of food and rest. At last he became entire- 
ly exhausted, and gave out altogether at a small town in the do- 
minions of the Duke of Austria. Here he was at length discov- 
ered by means of his page, whom he was obliged to send to mar- 



230 KING JOHN. 

ket for provision, and the authorities of the town seized and de- 
livered him to the duke. The duke immediately shut him up in 
a great castle on a hill, called the castle of Tiernsteign. 

How was he at le7igth set free ? 

Eichard was kept in prison several months, and was only re- 
leased at last by the payment of an immense ransom. The money 
for this ransom was raised in England, and sent over to Ger- 
many, and then the captive was set free. His brother John 
made his escape very precipitately when he heard that Richard 
was coming. 

Relate the sequel of Richard's history, 

Kichard caused himself to be crowned anew when he arrived 
again in his kingdom, under the idea that such a captivity as he 
had endured annulled, as it were, his first coronation. He lived 
after this four or five years, and then died from a wound which he 
received in storming a castle. 



CHAPTER YIII. 

KING JOHN. 

I^or what is the reign of King John chiefly celebrated ? 

The reign of King John is chiefly celebrated for a great meas- 
ure of state which was adopted in the course of it, by which the 
powers of the kings of England were greatly curtailed, and the 
privileges and rights of the people were defined and established 
by means of a solemn covenant which King John was compelled 
to sign. The name of the document in whicli this covenant was 
recorded was called Magna Charta. 

How did the kings usually exercise their power before the time 
of John? 

Before the time of King John, the kings of England had been 
accustomed, as we have seen, to lord it over the people in a very 



KING JOHN. 231 

Iiigli-haiided manner. Indeed, there was scarcely any practical 
limit to their power. 

'What had been the general condition of the country f 

During all the time while these rude and brutal kings and 
princes of England had been lighting with one another, and with 
rival claimants to the crown, the great mass of the people of the 
country had been going on quietly in their various pursuits, as 
well as the turbulent and reckless violence of the men who called 
themselves their rulers would allow. Thus the country had grad- 
ually increased in wealth and population, notwithstanding the great 
numbers that had been enticed to join the Crusades, and had per- 
ished miserably in those mad and wicked expeditions. 

IIoio teas the land held^ and what was the arrangement in 
respect to the tenants f 

The farming land was not owned generally by the people who 
cultivated it. It had been parceled out by the preceding kings, 
and especially by William the Conqueror, into great estates, which 
had been conferred on the great nobles. These nobles were called 
barons. They held the lands as their property, and compelled the 
common people to pay rent to them for such portions as they sev- 
erally cultivated. The king sustained them in the exercise of this 
power, and they, in return, when the king wished to raise an army, 
would each compel a certain number of his tenants to enlist. The 
poor tenants were obliged to go and become soldiers, however un- 
willing they might be. 

Had the king and the nobles a right to make such an arrange- 
ment as this, or only the power? 

If we ask what right one class of men had thus to appropriate 
to themselves all the land of the country, and compel those who 
tilled the ground to pay them rent, while they themselves lived in 
idleness and vice, or kept the country in confusion with their des- 
perate and boisterous quarrels, the answer must be that they had 
no right at all. They had the power. 



232 KING JOHN. 

In what way did they possess the power f 

They had the power, because they had an army. The barons 
furnished soldiers to make an army for the king, and the king used 
the power of the army when necessary to sustain the barons. If 
in any case a tenant refused to pay his rent, or a man called upon 
refused to enlist as a soldier, there were plenty of other soldiers 
always at hand to punish him, and compel him to submit. Thus 
the barons oppressed the people, and the kings, who had grown 
more and more haughty and tyrannical, oppressed the barons, 
until, in the reign of King John, things came to a sort of a crisis. 

How did it happen that things came to a crisis in Johi's reign f 

Perhaps the reason why this crisis came in John's time was on 
account of his character. He was an unprincipled, wicked, and 
hateful man, and a great coward withal, so that he was despised 
as well as hated. The manner in which he treated the young 
prince Arthur, at the commencement of his reign, shows very clear- 
ly what his character was. 

Who was Prince Arthur^ and lohat claims had he to the throne ? 

Artlmr was his nephew. He was now about twelve years old. 
He was the son of King Richard, avIio was an older brother of 
John, and thus, if the crown was hereditary, he, according to the 
estabhshed rules of descent, was the rightful heir. This was King 
Richard's understanding, and he had repeatedly designated young 
Arthur as his successor. 

What course did John putrsue f 

John, however, paid no regard to all this. He was a man grown, 
and he had armies at his command, while Arthur was a mere child, 
and was entirely helpless. So he caused himself immediately to 
be proclaimed king. He was in Normandy at the time, but he 
immediately put himself at the head of a force and went to England. 

IIoio teas John received by the harons of England f 

The barons of the kingdom at once determined to resist him. 
They raised forces themselves among their several tenants, and 



KING JOHN. 233 

then withdrew every man to his castle, and fortified themselves 
there. They said that Arthur was the rightful king, and John 
was a usurper. They were determined not to submit to him. 

What was the motive that led King Philip to espouse Arthur'' s 
cause f 

King Philip of France espoused Arthur's cause very warmly, 
not from any honest and sincere friendship to him, however, but 
only because it afforded him a pretext to make war upon John, 
and to get possession of some portion of Normandy for himself. 

Describe the interview which took place between Philip and 
Arthur, 

He invited Arthur to come to his court, and then asked him if 
he would like to be King of England. Arthur said that he should 
like to be a king very much indeed. "Well," said he, "I will 
furnish you with an army, and you shall go and make war upon 
John. I will go too, with another army. Then, whatever I take 
away from John in Normandy shall be mine, but all England shall 
be yours." Philip thought he could easily seize Normandy while 
John was defending himself against Arthur's friends in England. 

What did Arthur decide in respect to these prop)osals ? 

Arthur, who was now only about fourteen years old, was of 
course too young to exercise any judgment in respect to such 
questions as these, so he readily agreed to any thing that Philip 
proposed; and very soon he went at the head of a little army, 
which Philip furnished him, into Normandy, to make war upon his 
uncle. He was in name the commander of the army, though of 
course there were officers older and more experienced under him 
who really directed the operations. The different members of the 
family took different sides in this dispute, and thus, in a short 
time, they were all entangled in a most complicated domestic 
quarrel. At one time, Arthur, a boy of fourteen or fifteen, was 
besieging his grandmother of eighty, shut up in a castle, while his 
uncle, with another army, was besieging him. 



234 KING JOHN. 

What was the result of the campaign f 

The end of the campaign, however, was, that Arthur's little army 
was entirely defeated, and the young prince himself was taken 
prisoner. John and his savage soldiers got possession of the town 
where Arthur was in the night, and they seized the poor boy in 
his bed. The soldiers, by John's command, took the prisoner 
away, and shut him up in a dungeon, in a famous castle called 
the Castle of Falaise. 

Describe the circumsta7ices of King John^s visit to Arthur in 
prison. 

King John went to visit Arthur in his prison, after waiting a 
while, so as to allow time for the captive's spirit to be broken by 
his confinement and his sufferings, and endeavored to make some 
arrangement with him. His design probably was to offer him his 
liberty, and perhaps some rich estate, if he would only give up 
liis claims to the crown and acknowledo-e John as kins;. But he 
found that his prisoner's spirit was entirely unsubdued. All that 
Arthur would say to him w^as, Give me back my kingdom. John, 
finding thus that he could not make any terms with Arthur, went 
away in a rage, and determined to kill him. If i\.rthur were dead, 
there would then, he thought, be no farther difficulty, for all ac- 
knowledged that, after Arthur, John was the next heir. 

What was the determination that King John finalhj formed? 

There was, however, one other way. There was an idea pre- 
vailing in those days that no person who was blind, or deaf and 
dumb, could inherit a crown, and so John, on second thoughts, 
concluded, monster as he was, to destroy the prince's right to tlie 
succession by putting out his eyes. So he sent two executioners 
to perform this cruel deed upon the captive in his dungeon. 

How was Arthur saved? 

The name of the governor of the castle was Rupert. He was 
a humane man, and pitied his unhappy prisoner ; and so, when the 
executioners came, and Eupert went to the cell to tell Arthur that 



KING JOHN. 



235 



they had come, and what they had come for, Arthur begged for 
mercv, saying. Save me ! save me ! with so many cries and tears, 




SAVE ME I SAVE ME ! 



that Eupert concluded to put off the dreadful deed till he could 
see the king again. We see him, in the engraving, kneehng before 
Rupert in the dungeon, while the executioners are waiting without. 



236 KING JOHN. 

What measure did John adopt when he found that his com- 
mands had been disobeyed f 

John was very angry when he found that his orders had not 
been obeyed, and he immediately determined to remove Arthur to 
another prison, the keeper of which was known to be a stern and 
merciless man. This was done, and soon after it was given out 
through all the kingdom of England that Arthur was dead. Ev- 
ery body was convinced that John had caused him to be murder- 
ed. There were several different rumors in respect to the way in 
which the deed was done, all very horrible, but none too horrible 
to be believed of such a monster as John. 

Describe the rebellion that finally broke out against John. 

After this, the tyrant reigned for some time unquestioned in re- 
spect to his title, but generally abhorred and hated for his cruel- 
ties and his crimes, until at length the leading barons of the king- 
dom combined against him, and took the field with their armies, 
resolved to avail themselves of the public reprobation which his 
tyranny awakened to reduce the kingly power of the realm once 
for all within something like reasonable bounds. King John 
fought these rebels, as he called them, for some time in various 
parts of the kingdom, but he was at length overpowered and com- 
pelled to come to terms. 

How was the quarrel beticeen King John and his nobles 
brought to an end? In what light is Magna Charta now re- 
garded f 

The barons wrote their demands upon a roll of parchment, and 
compelled the king to sign it. This was the i\Iagna Charta, which 
means the great charter. It was the first great covenant between 
the kings and people of England, and is considered as the original 
basis and foundation of the civil rights which the British people 
now enjoy. 

In what place was Magna Charta signed? 

The place of assembly where King John came out to sign the 



KING JOHN. 



237 



covenant was a broad and beautiful meadow on the banks of the 
Thames, not far from Windsor Castle, where John was then quar- 
tered. The name of the field was Eunny Mead. The word Mead 
is a contraction for meadow. 




VIEW OK RUNNY MEAD. 



How did King John feel in ^^esjject to this charter after he 
had signed it f 

While King John was signing the Charta on the field, he pre- 
tended to do it very willingly, and to be well pleased with the 
provisions of it, but as soon as he returned to Windsor Castle he 
flew into a great rage. He cursed the charter, and the barons who 
had made him sign it, in the most bitter manner. He gnashed 
his teeth, rolled his eyes, gnawed sticks and straws, and raved like 
a perfect madman. 



238 



KING JOHN. 



Did the Icing prove faithful to the engagements that he had 
made f 

The barons had taken care to bind the king, not only by his 
signature and his oath, but had also exacted certain securities and 
pledges which they thought might help to keep him to his word. 
But all was not effectual. As soon as he recovered his liberty, 
and his barons had in some measure disbanded their forces, he be- 
gan to break his vows and return to 
his old ways. So the barons reas- 
sembled their forces and the war broke 
out anew. 

What ivas the result of his attem.])ts 
to violate his engageynents f 

The barons, finding that no faith 
would be kept by such an unprinci- 
pled and treacherous monster, determ- 
ined to have another king, and so they 
sent to France to a prince named 
Louis, and offered him the English 
crown if he would come over and take 
the command. Louis came, and then 
new civil wars broke out, and the 
kingdom was again in confusion. 

Icclate the circumstances of King 
John^s last sickness. 
At length, in the midst of these wars and commotions. King 
John suddenly fell sick and died. He was crossing the mouth 
of a stream with a train of wagons containing treasures, at a place 
where the tide rises very rapidly. They were a little too late. 
While they were still in the midst of the ford, the wheels sinking 
into the sand and water, the tide came upon them. They had a 
dreadful time in getting out, and the king was much exhausted 
by the excitement and the exposure. That night he ate glutton- 




KING JOHN. 



KING JOHN. 



239 



ouslv of some fruit they set before liim. Some say that his at- 
tendants poisoned this fruit. At any rate, the next day he was 
very sick. His men carried him on, in a litter, to a castle not far 
off, and then they found that he could go no farther, and so they 
put him down on a bed to die. 






) //// \ r' 1 \\ ^ ( 






c'TS^ > 







DEATH OF KING JOHN. 



W/iat were his feelings on his death-bed^ and what did he do f 
When he found that his end was so nigh, he was overwhelmed 
with remorse. He sent for a priest to come and pardon his sins, 
but all did no good. The wretched sinner died in despair. 



240 KING EICHAED THE THIED. 



CHAPTEE IX. 

KING EICHAED THE THIED. 



What teas the condition of England after the death of King 
John? 

From the time of John, the affairs of the Enghsh kingdom went 
on in all essential respects much the same for three or four hund- 
red years. There were the same dreadful quarrels among the 
different branches of the royal family, the same beleaguering of 
castles and storming of towns, and the same tyranny over all the 
industrial classes of the kingdom by haughty lords and despotic 
barons. Indeed, a very large proportion of the people of the coun- 
try were little better than slaves. 

What was the nature of the difficulties that occurred from time 
to time with the Pope of Rome f 

In addition to these internal troubles, there were difficulties from 
time to time with the Pope. The English people were Catholic at 
that time, and were consequently under spiritual subjection to the 
Pope of Rome, and he, whenever there was a quarrel in the king- 
dom between rival claimants to the crown, would take sides with 
one party or the other, whichever he supposed, if triumphant, 
would most promote the power and ascendency of the Church. 
This often made a great deal of trouble. 

What loas the nature of the difficulties with France f 

Besides this, wars were continually breaking out between En- 
gland and France ; for the kings of England, being descended from 
William, inherited Normandy and some other French provinces. 
Now the kings of France, while they admitted that the kings of 
England wei'e sovereign and independent in respect to their realm 
of England, always maintained tliat in respect to their French 
possessions they were bound to do homage to them as their feudal 



KING EICHAED THE THIRD. 241 

superiors. This led to endless disputes, and frequently to open 
war. The English kings were continually raising armies, by forc- 
ing the people of the land to enlist, and then compelling them to 
cross the Channel into France, to fight there in quarrels with 
which they had no concern. 

Iloio were the jpeojple prevented from asserting their rights and 
protecting themselves from these evils? 

The patience of the people was often entirely exhausted under 
the oppressions and sufferings that they endured, but they were 
so tied, hand and foot, by the armies which the kings kept always 
under their command, that they could do nothing but submit. Once 
or twice partial insurrections occurred, but they were speedily put 
down. 

Give an account of the insurrection of Wat Tyler, 

One of these insurrections was headed by a man named Wat. 
He was a laboring man. His business was to lay tiles upon roofs. 
He was called Wat the tiler, but in history his name has got 
changed to Wat Tyler. He was aroused to phrensy by the outra- 
geous injuries which one of the king's officers inflicted upon his 
daughter, a young girl about fourteen years old, when they came 
to his house to collect a tax that the king had levied in order to 
pay the expenses of his wars. He killed the officer on the spot, 
and then, rushing into the streets, he called upon 4he people to 
rise. They did rise, and a great insurrection they made of it. 
For a time the king's government seemed to be in real danger. 
But the insurgents were soon put down. Wat was killed in the 
street, and all the other leaders were hung in chains. 

What was the character of King Richard the Third? 

One of the worst of the kings in this long and bad succession 
was King Eichard the Third. He was not the rightful inheritor 
of the crown. He was a usurper. 

Who was the true heir to the throne, and what was his situation ? 

The true heir to the crown was a boy named Edward. He was 

Q 



242 



KING RICHARD THE THIRD. 



the fifth Edward in the royal line, his father being Edward the 

Fourth. He was in a castle in the country when his father died. 

He had a brother younger than himself, being about eleven years 

_--^_ ,^, ^, old, who was with 

his mother at this 
time in London. 

Who had the cart 
of Edward^ and what 
did she do f 

Edward, the old- 
est brother, was of 
course king imme^ 
diately after his fa- 
ther died. He was 
a very pretty boy, 
and his mother, be- 
ing much attached 
to him, was greatly 
alarmed when she 
heard of his father's 
death, and immedi- 
ately sent to have 
him brought to her 
in London. 

delate what occurred when Richard learned that Edward 
was coming to London. 

The danger which Edward's mother feared was from Richard, 
his uncle, who was then Duke of Gloucester. Richard was a de- 
termined, reckless, and desperate man, and one of the most pow- 
erful nobles in England. AVhen he learned that young Edward 
was coming to London, he set out to come too, so as to meet him 
on the way. The duke was accompanied by three hundred horse- 
men. He arrested the lords who had charge of the king, and then 




YOUNG EDWARD. 



KING RICHAED THE THIRD. 



243 



took the king under his own escort, but instead of conveying him 
to his mother, he conveyed him to the Tower of London, and shut 
him up there, under pretense that that was the safest place for him. 

What attemjpt did the ^mother of the king make to visit him 
in the Tower f 

His mother immediately went to the Tower, with some relatives 
and friends, in order to see her child, but the governor of the 
Tower would not let them in. The engraving represents a view 




THE TOWER OF LONDON. 



of this scene. The governor's name was Brakenbury. We shall 
hereafter hear of him again. 

What course did the duke novj pursue f 

The duke pretended great zeal for the safety of the two boys. 



244 KING EICHAED THE THIRD. 

the king and his brother. He styled himself the Protector, and 
he took charge of the government of the country in that name. He 
had soldiers enough under his command to enable him to do this, 
and to overawe all opposition. It was his duty, he said, the king 
being so young and inexperienced, and being his uncle and guard- 
ian, to protect him not only from open force, but from the secret 
machinations of his enemies. So he kept the king and his broth- 
er closely shut up in the Tower. 

What is the Tower ? 

The Tower is an ancient castle situated on the bank of the 
Thames at the lower part of London. It was used in those days 
as a prison for offenders against the government. It stiU remains, 
though it is not now used as a prison. It is an object of great 
historical interest at the present day. 

In what way did he treat the nohles f 

Then he began to cause all such nobles as he suspected of being 
unfriendly to him, and friendly to the king, to be arrested under 
one charge or another, and speedily executed. He pretended that 
he had discovered conspiracies in which they had been engaged. 
Governments had power to proceed in this prompt and summary 
manner in those days whenever they deemed it fit so to do. Now 
they can not do so. AH men now who are accused of crime in 
England must have a regular trial. 

Give an account of the violent proceedings of Richard at the 
council. 

In getting these men into his power, and in finding pretexts for 
having them beheaded, Eichard acted in a manner that was at once 
treacherous, tyrannical, and impudent. He went at one time into 
a council where a number of the lords were assembled who he 
knew were likely to take sides against him, and, after talking with 
them for a time in an easy manner, to throw them off their guard, 
he struck on the table with his fist to make a signal, and a large 
number of armed men, that he had in readiness outside for the 



KING RICHARD THE THIRD. 



245 




RICHARD AT THE COUNCIL. 



pose, rushed in, seized the lords that he suspected, and led them 
away to immediate execution. He said he had found out that 
they were traitors. 

Who was Jane Shore, and what accusation did the duke make 
against her f 

There was a lady of the court named Jane Shore. She had 
been the friend and favorite of the last king, and she was now the 
friend of one of the lords whom Gloucester knew to be hostile to 
him. Eichard determined to disgrace her too, so he accused her 
of being a sorceress. " See !" said he ; " see what she has done 
to me with her incantations and sorcery." 

What proof did the duke offer of Jane Shore's sorcery? 

So saying, Richard pulled up his sleeve and showed his arm, 
which was smaller than the other arm, and somewhat shriveled. 
It had always been so, and every body knew it, but he now pre- 
tended that Jane Shore had bewitched it. 

What was the punishment that he inflicted upon her f 

For punishment he compelled her to walk through the streets 



246 KING RICHARD THE THIRD. 

of London with very little clothing on, and her head and feet bare, 
carrying a lighted taper in her liands. She had to do this on Sun- 
day, when the streets were full of people. Eichard also seized all 
her property, which consisted of a great amount of jewelry and 
other such treasures, and appropriated them to his own use. He 
did this, he said, not from covetousness, but to show his virtuous 
indignation at her crimes. 

What teas the character of Jane Shore ? 

It is very true that Jane Shore was not a virtuous woman. 
The former king had enticed her away from her husband, and she 
had lived since a wicked life. But she was not a sorceress. 

Li what manner did Richard cause himself to he i^^oclaimed 
king ? 

When these things had been done, Eichard secretly arranged it 
with his partisans and confederates that they were to make a call 
upon him, in behalf of the people of England, to assume the crown 
himself, on the pretense that Edward was not the true son of th 
former king. So these men raised a company and proceeded to 
Eichard's palace, calling out "Long live King Eichard!" by the 
way. 

How did Richard receive the men vjho came to proclaim him, 
and tchat was their reply f 

When these men came to the palace, Eichard at first pretended 
to be alarmed, and would not receive them. Then he said he could 
not possibly consent to be king. The love he bore to the young 
king, and to the little prince his brother, absolutely forbade it. 
The delegation then told him, as it had been previously agreed upon 
that they should, that he micst be king. The people of England 
demanded it. Edward was not the true heir. The people never 
would submit to his taking the crown, and if Eichard would not 
take it, they should immediately go and find some one who would. 

Sow did the affair end f 

So Eichard reluctantly allowed himself to be made king, and 



KING RICHARD THE THIRD. 247 

immediately afterward he was proclaimed in all parts of London. 
Soon after this he was crowned with the greatest pomp and parade. 
Almost all the peers and peeresses of England were present, and 
seemed to acquiesce in the usurpation. 

W/iat was the first public measure that Richard adopted? 

Immediately after the coronation, Richard made a royal progress 
through his dominions. He was attended by a grand cavalcade, 
and he entertained the people wherever he went with feasts and 
celebrations. Of course they all came out to see him and his ret- 
inue as he passed, and Richard pretended that this was proof that 
the country wished him to reign over them. 

Were there any j^lcc^s fanned for opjjosing hhn? 

There were still a great many malcontents, and they secretly, 
and in conference with one another, resolved on revenge. They 
began to form plans for raising an army, breaking into the Tower, 
and rescuing the princes, and then putting young Edward upon 
the throne. This was to have been expected. Indeed, Richard 
knew, as soon as he assumed the crown, that he never could be 
safe while the two princes lived. 

What resolution did the hing 7iow take in respect to the princes^ 
and hoio did he attempt to execute it f 

He sent to Brakenbury, the keeper of the Tower, directing him 
to find some way to kill them. Brakenbury replied that he could 
not do it. Richard then put another man, named Tyrrel, in Brak- 
enbury's place for a day, and he sent two assassins, named Miles 
Forest and John Dighton, to perform the dreadful deed. These 
were coarse, rough men, who Tyrrel knew would shrink from 
nothing. 

How was Richard's purpose finally accomplished f 

The two assassins crept slowly up stairs to the room in the 
Tower where the young princes w^ere sleeping. Tyrrel waited at 
the foot of the stairs. The boys were sleeping quietly in each 
other's arms, suspecting nothing. The assassins advanced to the 



248 



KING EICHARD THE THIRD. 




MURDER Ot THE PRINCESs. 



bedside, and then put a pillow over the boys' faces, and held it 
there till they were suifocated. It was a long struggle, but at 
length the poor victims were dead. The assassins then carried 
the bodies down stairs, and buried them in a court-yard of the 
Tower. 

W/iat was the effect of the tidi7igs on the queen-mother f 

When the queen-mother learned what had become of her dar- 
ling sons, and saw the place where they lay, she was almost fran- 
tic with grief and horror. 

For hoio long a time did Richard reign ? 

Such were the means by which Richard, Duke of Gloucester, 
a desperate man, and a hard-hearted and cruel uncle, usurped the 
English throne, and became King Bichard the Third. He, how- 



KING RICHARD THE THIRD. 



249 



M 










:^y 



it^ 



Ml Si; 




iJ ^ 



j I ihi'ii 



W -tx _, £]» 




THE QUEEN-MOTHER MOUKNINQ FOR HER CHILDREN. 

ever, enjoyed the fruits of his crime only a very short time. He 
reigned but two years, and even during this period he enjoyed no 
peace. 

How far did the English people submit to his usurpation ? 

A large portion of the English people submitted to his rule, it 
is true, but a great many others never would submit to it, and 
plots were continually forming to depose him, and to bring some 
other prince — the nearest relative of the royal family that they 
could find — to reign in his stead. 

Describe the circumstances of his death. 

The plots that were formed against him led to several out- 
breaks of civil war, and at length, in one of the battles which 
were fought, Eichard was overwhelmed by his enemies, struck 



250 HENKY THE EIGHTH AND THE EEFOEMATION. 

down from liis horse, and killed. Nobody mourned for him. 
Nobody pitied him for his untimely fate. The crown which he 
had worn fell from his head and was trampled in the mud. Even 
his body lay for a while neglected where it fell. At length some 
soldiers took it up, and threw it across a horse, behind the sad- 
dle, like a sack of corn, and the horsemen rode away with it off 
the field. 

What branch of the royal family was it that now succeeded 
to the throne ? 

At the death of Eichard a new branch of the royal family, call- 
ed the Tudors, came to the throne. The branch to which Kich- 
ard and his predecessors belong-ed were called the Plantagenets. 
Of the sovereigns of the house of Tudor, the most distinguished 
were King Henry the Eighth and Queen Elizabeth. 



CHAPTER X. 

HENRY THE EIGHTH AND THE REFORMATION. 

For what is the reign of King Henry the Eighth chiefly dis- 
tinguished f 

The reign of King Henry the Eighth is chiefly distinguished 
in history for two things. First, for the abominable personal char- 
acter and conduct of the sovereign, and, second, for the great event 
of the separation of the English Church from the Roman Catholic 
Church, which took place during this reign, and which is usually 
called the Reformation. 

Describe the character of King Henry the Eighth, 

As to the character of King Henry, it was extremely bad, and 
the depravity of it was of a peculiarly detestable type. Some of 
the bad kings of England that had preceded him had been hated, 
others even had been abhorred. King Henry the Eighth's was a 
character to be loathed and despised. 



HENEY THE EIGHTH AND THE REFOEMATION. 251 

How will his character comimre with that of the Richards ? 

The Richards, in violence and cruelty, were like brutes, it is 
true, but the brutes they resembled were the lion and the tiger ; 
while it would be necessary to choose some much more degraded 
animal than these to match the beastliness of Henry. How it 
was possible for twenty or thirty millions of men to submit for 
forty years to be under the supreme dominion of such a wretch, 
to say nothing of their placing him at the head of the Christian 
Church, is an amazing mystery. 

At what age did he succeed to the crown^ and under what cir- 
cumstajices f 

Henry the Eighth succeeded to the crown when he was eighteen 
years old. The circumstances under which he entered upon his 
reign were very promising. His father had been very unpopular, 
and the people of England were rejoiced at his death. Henry was 
his sole surviving son, and there was no rival claimant to the 
crown. Henry was moreover at that time a young man of great 
personal beauty, and of agreeable manners, so that he was a gen- 
eral favorite. He was just of an age, too, to excite most strongly 
the interest of the people in his behalf. He and his father had 
not agreed well together during his father's lifetime, and in con- 
sequence of this he had spent his early years in retirement, where 
he had acquired a taste for literature and the arts. But his de- 
praved character, which was at first concealed, soon developed itself. 

IIoio ma7iy times was he married f 

About the time of his accession he was married to the Princess 
Catharine of Aragon, and the king and queen were crowned to- 
gether. After this. King Henry had five other wives, one after 
the other, making six in all. Indeed, the chief business of his 
life seemed to be falling in love with ladies not his wife, and then 
contriving ways and means to get rid of his wife, discarding, di- 
vorcing, or beheading her to make room for a successor. In a 
word, he was a slave to the most brutal and sensual propensities. 



252 



HENEY THE EIGHTH AND THE EEFOEMATION. 



Here is a picture of Henry, dressed in all the ostentatious and 
gaudy paraphernalia with which he loved so well to adorn himself. 




KING HENRY THE EIGHTH. 



Relate the circumstances of his first marriage. 

In respect to the first wife, Catharine of Aragon, there was a 
difficulty at the outset, which, although it was surmounted at the 
time, led afterward to serious consequences. Catharine was a 
widow when Henry married her. She had been the wife of Hen- 
ry's brother. 

What difficulty stood in the way of this Tnarriage^ and what 
luas the only way of surmounting it ? 

The rules of the Catholic Church, to which Henry and Cath- 
arine, and all England in fact, at that time belonged, forbade a 



HENEY THE EIGHTH AND THE EEFORMATION. 253 

marriage between a man and the widow of liis brother, and there 
was no way of surmounting this difficulty except by obtaining 
what they called a dispensation from the Pope — that is, special 
permission to disregard the rule in this case. It was believed in 
those days, as it is now indeed in the Catholic Church, that the 
Pope could pardon any past wrong, and could also make any fu- 
ture wrong right hy his permission. 

What ivere the circumstances that induced the Po^e to sanction 
this marriage f 

Now it happened that, a short time before the accession of King 
Henry, the great reformer, Martin Luther, had commenced preach- 
ing against the corruptions of the Catholic Church, and the vices 
and crimes of the priests and clergy, and he had produced so great 
an effect on the public mind, that the Pope began to be uneasy in 
respect to his power. He needed the support of all his friends. 
King Henry was likely to be one of his strongest friends, and it 
was very desirable to retain his favor. Under the influence of 
these and other considerations, the Pope granted the dispensation, 
and the king and Catharine were married. 

What kind of a wife did Catharine prove f 

Catharine proved to be a very true and faithful wife, though 
Henry was entirely unprincipled and faitliless as a husband. The 
union continued twenty years. 

Whom did he next desire for a wife, and what was his plan 
for obtaining her f 

At the end of that time Henry fell in love with one of the ladies 
of his court named Anne Boleyn, who would not return his love 
because he was already married. Then Henry determined to dis- 
card his wife Catharine, so that he might be married to Anne 
Boleyn, and the easiest way to do this would be to induce the 
new pope — for the one who had granted the dispensation was 
dead — to annul that decree, for this, he thought, would annul his 
marriage, and leave him at liberty again. 



254 HENRY THE EIGHTH AND THE EEFOEMATION. 

Why was the Pope unwillmg to convply with the hinges wishes? 

This, however, the Pope was extremely unwilling to do. He 
was involved at that time in very serious difficulties. All Europe 
was at war, and his interests were very deeply involved in the con- 
test, and some of the most powerful of the combatants were very 
strong friends of Catharine. She was the daughter of a king of 
Spain, and the Spanish influence at that time, in all the affairs of 
the Continent, was predominant. King Henry sent his most able 
minister, the Cardinal Wolsey, to Kome to urge the Pope to do 
what he required, while equally able envoys from the Spanish 
government and others urged him not to do it. 

What plan did the Pope finally adopt? 

Finally, the Pope contrived a plan for evading the responsibility 
of acting at alL He appointed the Cardinal Wolsey and another 
priest a commission to proceed to England and try the question 
there. 

Relate what occurred hefore the court. 

The court was convened, and Queen Catharine was summoned 
to appear before it. She came, but she would not answer to her 
name, nor acknowledge the jurisdiction of the court at all. In- 
stead of this, she fell down upon her knees before her husband, and 
begged him not to cast her off. She had been his true and faith- 
ful wife, she said, for twenty years. All this time she had been 
dutiful and obedient in all things, and had never given him occa- 
sion to be displeased with her by any thing which she had done 
or failed to do. She called upon him to bear witness for her 
that this was true, and she begged him not to cast her off now, 
and, at any rate, she entreated him to grant her time to send to 
Spain to consult with her friends tliere in respect to what she 
ought to do. The opposite engraving represents a view of the 
hall where the trial was held, with distinguished persons of the 
court listening to the proceedings in the anteroom. In the hall, 



HENRY THE EIGHTH AND THE REFOEMATION. 



255 




TRIAL OF QUEEN CATHARINE. 



of which we have a partial view between the curtains of the en- 
trance, we see the unhappy queen kneeling before the king, implor- 
ing him to desist from his cruel design. 

What did the queen cdlege as he?' chief reason for being unwill- 
ing that her inarriage should he annulled? 

One chief reason, Catharine said, why she was so earnest in 
imploring the king not to discard her, was for the sake of her 
daughter. She had a daughter named Mary, the only one of all 
her children that was now living. Mary, of course, was heir to 
the crown, and would become one day Queen of England if the 
marriage of her mother with the king were allowed to stand, where- 
as if it were annulled she would, of course, at once become a pri- 
vate person. 



256 HENRY THE EIGHTH AND THE EEFORMATION. 

Holo did the proceedings before the court endf 
As soon as Catharine had concluded her piteous appeal to the 
king, finding that she made no impression, she rose and walked 
straio'ht out of court. She was called back, but she would not 

o 

come. She declared that she would not acknowledge the jurisdic- 
tion of the court at all. She appealed to the Pope. Henry was 
very angry, and urged the court to proceed and pronounce the sen- 
tence, but they would not. They said they must wait till they 
could hear from Eome, and they adjourned the court to a later day. 

Describe the controversy that followed, and the ineans that 
were taken to settle it. 

Then followed a long and tedious controversy. Henry resorted 
to every possible means that he could devise to induce the Pope 
to give the decree. He entreated him, he threatened him, he of- 
fered to bribe him ; but all his efforts were neutralized by the in- 
fluence of the King of Spain, who warmly espoused the queen's 
cause. At length, some of the courtiers recommended to him to 
have the case decided by the authorities in England, without ref- 
erence to the Pope at all. This plan seemed to Henry excellent , 
so he dismissed his old counselors, and appointed the others in 
their place, and they proceeded at once to lay the question before 
various English tribunals, such as the great universities, the Par- 
liament, and certain ecclesiastical courts. Then followed long 
and angry discussions. i 

What were the communications that passed between the Pope 
and the king f 

The Pope, lear;aing what was going on, sent word to the king 
not to proceed, and threatened him with excommunication if he 
did not cease his opposition to the papal authority. Henry re- 
plied that he was not making any opposition to the Pope, but was 
only actuated in what he was doing by the scruples of his tender 
conscience in respect to the validity of his marriage ; and in order 
to prove how devoted he still rv^as to the cause of the Church, he 



HENEY THE EIGHTH AND THE REFORMATION. 257 

seized a poor man who had written a pamphlet in favor of the 
Protestant cause, and burned him for his heresy at the stake, at 
Smithfield, which was a great public market in London. This 
unhappy victim was the first of the Smithfield martyrs. 

Hoio did the quarrel between the Poj^e and the king end at 
last f 

The breach grew rapidly wider and wider between the king 
and the Pope, and in the end, Henry, partly by bribes, partly by 
threats, and partly by cajolery, induced the English Church to sep- 
arate itself wholly from the Church of Eome, and make Henry in- 
stead of the Pope its ecclesiastical head. The decree of annulment 
in respect to the marriage was then passed, and soon after it was 
publicly proclaimed that King Henry had married Anne Boleyn. 

What iims the true character of the English Beformcction ? 

If this were all that constituted the English Eeformation, Prot- 
estants might well be ashamed of it. But it was not so by any 
means. There Avere thousands and hundreds of thousands of 
Christians among the people of England who before this time had 
examined the subject, each for himself, in private life, and had be- 
come honestly convinced that the claim of the Romish Church to 
exercise supreme spiritual dominion over all the world was a great 
usurpation, and that the influence which the papal power exercised 
on the nations of the earth was to hinder and not promote the 
cause of true piety. It was by means of this great prevailing sen- 
timent, which had taken so strong a hold of the public mind, that 
the king was able to effect the outward change. Thus the En- 
glish Reforraation was, in fact and in substance, a great and hon- 
est change of opinion among the mass of conscientious Christians 
throughout the kingdom. 

Was King Henry in reality the author of the English Ref- 
ormation^ or did he only make tise of it f 

King Henry fell in with this general change of sentiment among 
the people of England, and availed himself of it to accomplish a 

R 



258 HENRY THE EIGHTH AND THE REFOExMATION. 

corrupt and wicked purpose, it is true, and was the means of car- 
lying the separation into full effect. But it was only the out- 
ward and visible form, after all, that he had any thing to do with. 
The real and inward change took place wholly independent of his 
agency. 

W/iat question in Tes;pect to the succession afterivard arose 
from these disjputed marriages, and how ivere the x)eo])le of En- 
gland divided i?i respect to it f 

Notwithstanding the annulment of the marriage, a large portion 
of the people of England still believed that it was valid, and that 
Mary was heir to the crown. After a time, Anne Boleyn had a 
daughter named Elizabeth. Of course, those who believed that 
the annulment of the former marriage was right, considered that 
this babe Elizabeth was the true heir. The Catholics of the king- 
^■[om — for the people were still nearly one lialf Catholics — believed 
in Mary's claims. The Protestants, on the other hand, believed in 
Elizabeth's. And every one expected that, whenever the king 
should die, the whole quarrel Avould be opened again, and there 
would be a great struggle to determine which of these princesses 
should take the throne. 

What two interests did these rival princesses respectively 
represent f 

Of course, under the circumstances of the case, Mary became the 
head and the representative of the Catholic party in England, while 
Elizabeth represented the Protestants. The education of the two 
princesses, moreover, corresponded with their relative situations. 
Mary was brought up in communion with the Catholic Church, 
while Elizabeth was trained as a Protestant. 
Describe the ceremomj of Elizabeth's haiytism. 
Of course, the king did all in his power to elevate Elizabeth in 
public regard, and cause Mary to be forgotten. He celebrated 
EHzabeth's baptism with the greatest possible pomp and parade. 
The baptism took place at the palace of Greenwich, on the banks 



HENRY THE EIGHTH AND THE REFORMATION. 



259 



of the Thames, a few miles below London. The company went 
down the river in a long train of barges, and landed at the palace 




THE BIPTISM or LLIZVBETH 



stairs, to the sound of trumpets and drums, and with the waving 
of banners. 

All this time ivhat became of Mary? 

Poor Mary was sent away, and shut up in solitude and seclu- 
sion, and even her mother was not allowed to see her. The un- 
happy queen died soon after this of a broken heart. 

Who was the person that Henry desired for a third ivife, and 
lohat jylan did the king contrive to remove the second out of the 
loay ? 

The king lived with his new queen a few years, and then he be- 



260 HENRY THE EIGHTH AND THE EEFOEMATION. 

came tired of her, and fell in love with another lady of his court 
named Jane Seymour. The question was now how he should get 
rid of Anne Boleyn. After a while he accused her of the crime 
of being unfaithful to him. There seems to have been no ground 
for this accusation whatever. It is universally believed that she 
was entirely innocent. Still, he manoeuvred and managed in such 
a manner as to cause her to be condemned. 

What was the fate of Anne Boleyn f 

The court that he appointed to try her sentenced her either to 
be burned or beheaded, at the pleasure of the king. Henry, pre- 
tending to be extremely merciful, decided that she should be be- 
headed. So they took her to the court-yard of the Tower, where 
she was imprisoned, and, laying her head upon a block, they 
chopped it off with a broad-axe. The block is to be seen in the 
Tower now, by all who go there, with the mark of the axe upon it. 

What other marriages did Henry contract ? 

The king was married to Jane Seymour the very next day after 
Anne Boleyn was beheaded. He soon afterward caused his mar- 
riage with Anne to be annulled, in order to cut off her daughter 
Elizabeth from inheriting the crown. Jane Seymour did not live 
a great while, and then Henry married again. This was his fourth 
wife. Her name was Anne of Cleves. He soon became tired of 
Anne, and caused himself to be divorced from her, and married 
another lady named Catharine Howard. After a time he accused 
Catharine of unfaithfulness to him, and she was beheaded too, as 
Anne Boleyn had been. Then he married his sixth wife. Her 
name was Catharine Parr. 

How did his life end ? 

Thus he went on, growing worse and worse, and becoming more 
and more violent and depraved, till at last, in the fifty-sixth year 
of his age, he fell sick and died miserably. 



QUEEN ELIZABETH. 261 



CHAPTER XI. 

QUEEN ELIZABETH. 

How many and loho were the claimants to the crown after 
the death of Henry ? 

King Henry the Eighth, at his death, left three children living, 
Mary, the daughter of Catharine, Elizabeth, the daughter of Anne 
Boleyn, and Edward, a young boy, the child of Jane Seymour, 
It was somewhat doubtful Avhich of these was entitled to the 
crown. Each of them had a large party of adherents. The 
party of Edward carried the day, and he reigned, or, rather, he 
wore the crown, and his friends reigned for him, several years. 

Describe the character of Mary, 

When Edward died the Catholic party gained the ascendency, 
and Mary was brought to the throne. She was by nature a stern, 
austere, and hard-hearted woman, whom nobody loved. Still, she 
may have been very honest and conscientious in her opinions. 

What ivere her feelings in Te8])ect to the Catholic religion and 
the Reformation f 

She, of course, hated the memory of her father, on account of 
his having persecuted her mother so cruelly, and having done so 
much to deprive her of her rights as his daughter. She also, of 
course, liked the Pope and the Romish Church, because they had 
taken her mother's part in the controversy with her father. 
What were the measures that she adopted? 

She determined at Once to undo all that her father had done for 
the Reformation. She reorganized the Romish Church in En- 
gland, and subjected the kingdom again to the spiritual jurisdic- 
-tion of the Pope ; and vast numbers of the people who opposed 
these changes, and resisted the reintroduction of the Romish re- 
ligion, she caused to be burned at the stake or beheaded as here- 



262 QUEEN ELIZABETH. 

tics. So numerous and so cruel were these persecutions, that in 
distinguishhig her from some other queens of the same name, she 
is called in history Bloody Mary. What a strange combination 
of words is this ! 

W/iai was the ground of the enmity between Mary and Eliz- 
abeth ? 

Of course, Mary and Elizabeth, though half-sisters, were mortal 
enemies. The cause of their disagreement, too, was of such a na- 
ture that it could not possibly be removed or remedied. It was 
only the mother of one or the other of them that could have been 
the true and lawful wife of their father. Elizabeth and her friends 
maintained that the marriage with Catharine was null and void 
from the beginning, and that Mary was born in dishonor. On the 
other hand, Mary and her friends claimed that this marriage was 
valid, and that the second marriage of the king, that is, the mar- 
riage with Elizabeth's mother, was bigamy, which is a great crime, 
and that consequently Elizabeth was born in dishonor. 

How did this quarrel end ? 

i\Iary suspected that Elizabeth's party were plotting against her 
and intending to dethrone her, and, finally, becoming more and 
more uneasy on this point, she caused Elizabeth to be arrested and 
conveyed to the Tower. Here she kept her shut up a prisoner 
for several months. Afterward, when she found that treating her 
sister in this way was likely to excite public odium, and increase 
Elizabeth's party, she took her from the Tower and sent her away 
into the country, to a retired palace near Oxford, but confined her 
still as closely as ever. 

What occurred in resjject to Elizabeth lohen Mary died f 

Things continued mucli in this state a few years longer, when 
at length Mary died. The great officers of state then rode in great 
haste to Hatfield, where Elizabeth w^as then residing, proclaimed 
her queen, and brought her to London in a grand triumphal pro- 
cession. 



QUEEN ELIZABETH. 



263 



DescHhe the jpyvcession hy which Elizabeth was conducted to 
London. 

In this procession she was accompanied by a thousand persons 
of the highest rank and station. She rode in a splendid carriage, 
open to the public view, and drawn by horses richly caparisoned, 
while the music of trumpets and drums, and the waving of innu- 
merable flags and banners, gladdened the scene. The people of 




Elizabeth's progress to London. 



the country came out in immense crowds, and stood by the way- 
side while the procession passed by. God save Queen Elizabeth 
was the cry, and the whole air was filled with their joyous shouts 
and acclamations. Thus Elizabeth commenced her reign. 

What course did Elizabeth jpursue in respect to the Reforma- 
tion ? 

Elizabeth was, of course, a Protestant, and, as soon as she was 
established in power, she dii'ected all her efforts to the work of un- 



264 QUEEN ELIZABETH. 

doing what Mary had done, and restoring the kingdom to the con- 
dition in which her father had placed it. She dismissed the Cath- 
olic lords from her councils, and appointed Protestants in their 
place. In a word, she re-established the Reformation. 

W/iat ground did the Catholics then assume in resjpect to 
Elizabeth ? 

This, of course, greatly excited the anger and enmity of the 
Catholics throughout the kingdom and throughout Europe. They 
were the more unwilling, too, to submit to this new revolution, be- 
cause, as they maintained, Elizabeth was not the true heir to the 
throne. She had no claim to it whatever, as they thought. They 
all held that the marriage of the king her father with Catharine of 
Aragon was valid, liaving been authorized by the Pope, and that the 
revocation of it by the English courts was invalid, and, of course, 
that the king's marriage with Anne Boleyn, and the subsequent 
birth of Elizabeth, were irregular, and that consequently Elizabeth 
was a mere private person, and not the heir to the crown at all. 

Who did they claim ivas the rightfid heir f 

Who then was the heir ? Elizabeth was the only child of King 
Henry remaining alive, and, of course, if she were to be set aside, 
it would be necessary to go to the nearest relative of the family, 
reckoning from Henry's father. Now this nearest relative was a 
young and exceedingly lovely lady named ^lary. She was a 
Scotch princess, and is known in history as the celebrated Mary 
Queen of Scots. 

Explain hoio it happened that Mary could he considered heir 
to the throne. 

The reader may perhaps wonder how it could happen that a 
Scotch princess could be heir to the English throne. The explana- 
tion is this. Her grandmother was the sister of Henry the Eighth, 
and she married the King of Scotland. Of course, ]Mary was 
Elizabeth's second cousin, and if all the children of Henry the 
Eighth were set aside — as her grandmother came next to King 



QUEEN ELIZABETH. 265 

Henry in the line, and as it happened that she was now her grand- 
mother's sole heir — she would inherit the crown of Scotland through 
her grandfather, and that of England through her grandmother. 
This all the Catholic party in England maintained was the real 
state of the case, and so they began, very soon after Elizabeth's 
accession, to devise ways and means of deposing Elizabeth and 
bringing Mary to the throne. The reason why they were so much 
interested in espousing Mary's cause, was that Mary was a Cath- 
olic, and they thought that by making her queen they should pro- 
mote the re-establishment of the Catholic religion in England. 

W/iere teas Mary at this time, a7icl in what j^osition f 

Mary, however, was not in Scotland at this time. She was 
in France. She had been sent there when very young to be edu- 
cated, and there, at length, when she was about fifteen years old, 
it Avas arranged that she should be married to the Prince of 
France. One reason for hastening this marriage was that this 
prince was a Catholic, and they wished to confirm Mary in her 
Catholic faith, and make it sure, if possible, that she would remain 
one all her days. 

What ivas, then, the general nature of the quarrel between 
Mary and Elizabeth f 

Thus every thing conspired to make Mary the head and the rep- 
resentative of the Catholic cause in England and Scotland, and 
Elizabeth of that of the Protestants. This rendered them rivals 
and enemies of each other, and the history of their lives is little 
else than a history of the plans, manoeuvres, stratagems, and de- 
vices which they and their respective counselors and adherents 
were continually forming against each other. The Protestants of 
Scotland took Elizabeth's part against ]\Iary, while, to balance 
this, the Catholics of England took Mary's part against Elizabeth. 
EHzabeth regarded Mary's friends in her dominions as traitors and 
rebels, and considered Mary as directly or indirectly responsible 
for all their machinations ; while Mary thought precisely the same 



266 QUEEN ELIZABETH. 

of Elizabeth's friends in Scotland. Tims there was continual 
jealousy between tliem, and sometimes open war. 

IIoio did the quarrel end ? 

It ended in Mary's falling into Elizabeth's hands as a prisoner 
at one time when she was driven from her own kingdom by the 
dissensions there, and had fled across the border. Elizabeth kept 
her prisoner for many years, and then finally, having found some 
reason to suspect that she was still plotting against her in her 
prison, she caused her to be beheaded. 

^Yhat is it that has led mankind to take so strong an interest 
in the history of Mary Queen of Scots ? 

The story of ^lary Queen of Scots, when you read it in full, is 
an exceedingly interesting and affecting tale. Her beauty, her 
misfortunes, the romantic adventures and vicissitudes through 
which she passed, the strange and unnatural crimes of which she 
was accused, and her mournful and tragical end, conspire to invest 
the narrative of her life with an inexpressible charm. 

JIoiv long did Elizabeth continue Queen of England^ and what 
was the general character of her reign f 

The reign of Elizabeth was very long. It continued nearly fif- 
ty years. During all this time the affairs of the government were 
managed very successfully by the ministers of state that she em- 
ployed. She was involved in several foreign wars, gained many 
victories, and carried on many great operations both by land and 
sea, in various quarters of the globe. She built and equipped fleets, 
erected fortresses, established colonies, sent exploring expeditions 
round the world, and opened new channels of commerce and trade. 
In a word, she was in all respects a great and powerful sovereign. 
Whcd teas her joersonal character f 

As a woman, she was exceedingly weak, vain, frivolous, and 
childish. She was extremely fond of dress and personal deco- 
rations, a trait which always denotes a weak and shallow mind. 
You will see, by the representation of her in the adjoining en- 



QUEEN ELIZABETH. 



267 



oravino', how she liked to load herself with lineiy. She was ex- 
ceedingly plain in her face, and her selfishness and heartlessness 




POKTRAIT OF QUEtiiM i:LlZABiiTH. 



made her manners disagreeable, and yet she was very vain and 
extremely fond of personal flattery. She was never so well pleased 
as when the gentlemen of her court complimented her on her 1 eauty 



268 QUEEN ELIZABETH. 

and her personal cliarmSj^though every body knew that she pos- 
sessed none whatever. 

How did it happen that she was never married f 

She had several pretended lovers during her reign. They wish- 
ed to marry her for the sake of the exalted station they would at- 
tain to "by being the husband of the Queen of England. Elizabeth 
was pleased with their attentions, and was often almost inclined 
to marry some one or other of them ; but she was afraid that by 
so doing she should lose some portion of her power. Ambition was 
a stronger passion with her than love, and thus, although she was 
continually thinking of marriage, she continually postponed it, and 
the result was that she spent her life as a single woman. 

lielate the circumstajice of her giving the Earl of Essex a 
Ting. 

The last of Queen Elizabeth's favorites, one of the most distin- 
guished characters of modern history, was the Earl of Essex. He 
enjoyed the queen's regard in a remarkable degree, and when he 
was in the height of his power and influence over her, she one day 
gave him a ring, saying that if at any future time he would send 
her that ring, she would pardon him any offense he might have 
committed. Essex took the ring, and said he' should remember it. 

^Vhat afterward became of Essex f 

Years passed away, and at length Essex became involved in 
very serious political difficulties. TJiere was a rebellion in Ireland, 
and Essex was sent to quell it. After a time, hearing that his en- 
emies were plotting against him at court, he came home to Lon- 
don without permission. This offended the queen. She reproach- 
ed him, and he answered her in resentful language. Tliis led to 
a quarrel, and Essex began to form plans for ingratiating himself 
with the next heir to the crown, Elizabeth herself being now ad- 
vanced in years. These schemes were discovered, and Essex was 
arrested through the influence of his enemies, tried for treason, and 
condemned to die. 



QUEEN ELIZABETH. 269 

WAai we7'e the queeii's thoughts and feelings i7i respect to Es- 
sex vjhen she found that he loas condemned to die ? 

The queen's anger against him was now appeased, and she wish- 
ed to save him. "If he sends me the ring," said she to herself, 
" I will pardon him. If he is too proud and stubborn to do that, 
he must die." So she watched and waited, expecting every day 
that Essex would send the ring to her, but it did not come. 

Did she alloiu the sentence to he executed, and ivhy ? 

"He means to compel me to pardon him of my own accord," 
said. she to herself, "without his sending me the ring, but I will 
let him know that I am as obstinate as he." So she continued 
to expect the ring to the very last day, but it did not come. The 
law was accordingly allowed to take its course, and Essex was be- 
headed. 

How was it that Elizabeth did not receive the ring ? 

Essex had sent the ring. He gave it to a lady of the court, 
who promised to carry it to Elizabeth, but she did not do it. Her 
husband would not allow her to do it. Her husband was Essex's 
enemy, and did not wish that he should be pardoned, so he forbade 
his wife to deliver the ring. 

What were the feelings of the queen when she learned the truth? 

As soon as the excitement of the occasion, in respect to the ex- 
ecution of Essex, was over, the queen bitterly repented that she 
had not,pardoned her favorite of her own accord. She thought of 
all her former love for him, and mourned his unhappy fate with 
many unavailing tears. The lady who had withheld the ring was 
made very wretched too by the recollection of her unfaithfulness 
to the trust which Essex had committed to her, and at length, two 
years afterward, when she was sick and about to die, she found 
that she could not leave the world in peace without seeing Eliza- 
beth and making confession. So she sent for Elizabeth to come 
and see her, and then confessed her fault, gave up the ring, and 
humbly implored the queen's forgiveness. 



270 OVERTHROW OF THE MONARCHY. 

Did the queen forgive the lady ivho ivithheld the ring f 
Elizabeth, instead of being softened by the humility and remorse 
of the offender, was greatly enraged. She could scarcely control 
her passion. She shook the dying woman in her bed, saying, " For- 
give you ! God may forgive you if he pleases, but I never will." 
What I'jas the effect of this transaction on Elizabeth'' s inindf 
The effect of this occurrence, added to all the other anxieties, dis- 
appointments, mortifications, and sorrows that had been long ac- 
cumulating, and were now preying upon Elizabeth's mind, soon 
broke down her health and brought her to the grave. By her 
death the family of Henry the Eighth became extinct, and James, 
the son of ^lary Queen of Scots, succeeded to the throne. 



CHAPTER XII. 

OVERTHROW^ OF THE MONARCHY. 

What teas the general condition of thejfeojple of England dur- 
ing the reigns that have been described? 

During the period in which this long line of kings and queens 
had been ruling over England, the people of the country had been 
gradually improving in the arts and refinements of life, and the 
wealth and prosperity of the country had steadily increased. The 
wars and the civil commotions which the kingdom was plunged 
into from time to time, in consequence of the mismanagement of 
the government, or the quarrels of rival claimants to the throne, 
impeded this progress, but did not wholly prevent it. The coun- 
try became more and more densely peopled. Towns and cities 
were built, and increased rapidly in wealth and population. Man- 
ufactories of various kinds were established, and considerable prog- 
ress was made in many of the arts, especially in those relating to 
the manufacture of arms and armor, and the fabrication of stuffs 
for dress and of personal decorations. 



OVEETHROW OF THE MONARCHY. 



271 



What ivas the general condition of the mechanic certs f 
The use of machinery and of steam, by means of wliicli so 
much is accomplished at the present day, was not then known. 
Almost every thing was done by hand, and the various processes 
\7ere, of course, effected at comparatively great disadvantage. The 
engraving represents the coining of money, as it was performed in 
those days, all the various processes, such as beating out the metal 

,,.. :;;'5Mliliiii3iK 




PKOCESis Ot COINING. 



into plates, cutting it into pieces of the proper size, and stamping 
it with the impression, being performed by hand. All this is done 
now by machinery, and is effected in a far more complete, rapid, 
and effectual manner. 

What effects ivere joroducecl by the religious dissensions that 
prevailed ? 

The struggle between the Protestants and the Catholics was 
protracted tlirough several successive reigns, the government of the 



272 OVERTHROW OF THE MONARCHY. 

country changing from one side to the other, according to the re- 
ligion of the sovereign, and this depended altogether upon the in- 
fluences under which the several princes were educated. Then, 
whatever was the religion of the government, those who dissented 
from it were persecuted in the most cruel and relentless manner. 
Some were imprisoned, some were branded with hot irons or oth- 
erwise tortured, and some were burned at the stake in sight of the 
king's palace, or in some public square of the city. 

W/ie?i at length the Reformation became established, what new 
class of religionists arose f 

At length, after the Protestant religion had finally gained the 
ascendency, and the Episcopal Church of England became the es- 
tablished religion of the land, a considerable portion of the people 
began to dissent from that too. These persons were called Pres- 
byterians, and Puritans, and sometimes Dissenters. 

Describe the origin and the 7neaning of these different names. 

They were called Presbyterians in allusion to the form of Church 
government that they adopted, which was a government oi ])res- 
byteries. A presbytery is a body of pastors associated together. 
The Church of England, on the other hand, was governed by bish- 
ops. The term Puritans was used to denote that they claimed to 
\\^\Q pmnjied t\\Q Church entirely from all the rites and ceremonies 
of popery, while the Church of England retained a great many of 
them. Finally, they were called Dissenters because they dissent- 
ed from the established religion of the country. The last name, 
Dissenters, is still retained, and denotes all in England who do 
not adhere to the Established Church. 

What teas the conduct of the Dissenters ? 

When at any time they gained a little power and ascendency, 
they resorted to force and violence in accomplishing their ends 
just as the others had done. They could not endure any thing 
that was connected in any way with the formalities and ceremo- 
nies of popery. In the opposite engraving we see a party of them 



OVERTHROW OF THE MONARCHY. 



273 




PURITANS PULLING DOWN A CROSS IN LONDON. 



engaged in pulling down a cross from the top of a monument in 
the streets of London. They were determined to purify the 
Church from all these things, and it was on this account, as has 
already been said, that they received the name of Puritans. 

Give an account of the controversy in resjpect to the use of the 
Scriptures, 

In the course of the contest between the Catholics and the Prot- 
estants, one great cause of dissension related to the use of the 
Scriptures by the common people. The Catholics would not al- 
low the people to read the Bible for themselves. It must be read 
and explained to the people, they said, by the priests. The Prot- 
estants, on the other hand, insisted on the people's reading and 
judging for themselves. 

What cu7'ious custom was introduced to enable the ]peo2ole to 
read the Bible for themselves ? 

The art of printing was then so much in its infancy, that books 

S 



274 



OVERTHROW OF THE MONARCHY. 



were very dear, and the people could not, as now, have copies at 
their own homes. It was accordingly the custom of the Prot- 
,, ,, , estants, when they had 

the ascendency, to put 
a copy of the Bible upon 
a sort of desk or stand 
in a church, in some 
place which was conve- 
niently accessible — as 
newspapers are put up 
now at hotels and read- 
ing-rooms — for all per- 
I sons to come and read 
] who pleased. In order 
' to prevent the book from 
being taken away, it was 
usual to secure it to the 
desk where it was placed 
by means of a chain, as 
is seen in the engraving. 
Of course, when tlie Catholics came into power, this usage was 
at once abolished. 

T?i tv/iose reign did the controversy with the Dissenters reach 
its highest point ? 

The Puritans, and the other dissenters from the Established 
Church of England, became very numerous and strong in the time 
of Charles the First, who was the son of James the First, and his 
successor on the throne. Their numbers and their influence were 
greatly increased by the very measures which the king took to 
suppress them. 

Explain the character and the vieivs of King Charles the First. 

King Charles was a very stern man, and he was fully convinced, 

no doubt, that he had a perfect right to govern his kingdom as he 




BIBLE CHAINED IN A CHURCH. 



OVERTHROW OF THE MONARCHY. 275 

thought best, and he did govern it, as long as he could keep at the 
head of it at all, with a very strong hand. The measures that he 
adopted excited a great deal of discontent, which increased from 
year to year, and was only aggravated by the king's efforts to 
suppress it, until it ended at last in open rebellion. 

Exjjlain the origin and the nature of Parliaments. 

In this great contest, the body which acted in behalf of the peo- 
ple was the Parliament. The kings of England began to call Par- 
liaments — that is, assemblies of men to give them counsel and as- 
sist them in framing laws — at a very early period ; so early, indeed, 
that it is not now known when and how the custom originated. 
If the king was engaged in an important war, or if he wished rules 
and regulations to be made about any branch of trade, or if he had 
any large sums of money to raise, he would send orders to all the 
chief lords and barons, in the various parts of the kingdom, direct- 
ing them to come to London, and also to all the principal towns 
and counties, and to the great ancient corporations, such as the 
universities, requiring them to choose men to send in their behalf. 

In lohat manner did the Parliament tra7isact business f 

The persons thus summoned would meet in two separate coun- 
cils, the lords in one, and the representatives of the towns, coun- 
ties, and corporations in another, and then the king or his minister 
would send word to them what laws he wished to have passed or 
what measures adopted, and they would mature the laws or the 
measures, and write out the enactments in proper form, and at last, 
when they were ready, they would send them to the king. If the 
king approved of the acts as the Parliament had framed them, then 
he would say so, and the acts became laws. If he did not approve 
of them, he would say that he would think about it, and then they 
were dropped, and nothing more was ever heard of them. 

What was the chief source of the ])oioeT of the Parliament 
in their contests vnth the king ? 

In the course of several centuries, it came to be the establish- 



276 OVERTHROW OF THE MONARCHY. 

ed custom and law of the land that the king could lay no taxes. 
nor collect any money of the people, in any of the usual ways, 
without the consent of Parliament, and thus the Parliament had 
the king in some measure in its power. So, when the contest be- 
gan in the reign of King Charles between the king and the peo- 
ple, the strugg'le was carried on by the Parliament refusing to 
grant the king the money that he wanted to carry on his wars. 

Oive an account of Strafford and Laud. 

The king's leading ministers at this time were Strafford and 
Laud. Strafford was a great minister of state. Laud was an 
archbishop, and was at the head of the Church. Strafford aided 
the king m his efforts to compel the people to submit to his author- 
ity in respect to the civil affairs of the kingdom, and Laud in re- 
spect to the affairs of the Church. The people and the Parliament 
resisted them both. The more they resisted, the more the king 
and his two great counselors were determined to make them sub- 
mit ; and the more severe the measures were that the government 
adopted, the higher the resentment and anger of the country were 
aroused. 

How was the contest at last brought to a crisis f 

At last, the general feeling of resentment and indignation became 
so overwhelming as to carry all before it, and one day the House 
of Lords were thunderstruck by the appearing of a messenger from 
the House of Commons at the door of their hall, saying that they 
accused the Earl of Strafford of high treason, and demanded his 
arrest and trial. Soon afterward Laud was arrested too, and 
thrown into prison. 

What became of Strafford ? 

Strafford was tried and condemned to death. The kins: did all 
he could to save him, but the storm which he had awakened had 
got now entirely beyond his control, and he was compelled to sign 
the warrant for Strafford's execution to save his own life. On 
his way to the place of execution, Strafford passed under the win- 



OVEETHEOW OF THE MONAECHY. 277 

dow of the cell where Laud was confined, and he kneeled down on 



iAm'wiw ;!.ii,i 




STRAFFORD ON HIS WAY TO EXECUTION. 



the pavement as he went by to receive the captive prelate's bless- 
ing and to bid him farewell. 

What effect did the execution of Strafford produce in respect 
to the progress of the quarrel f 

The king was now thoroughly alarmed. He began to assemble 
his troops, not knowing what was going to happen. The Parlia- 
ment sent him word that they considered this assembling of troops 
as an act of hostility to the people, and they called upon him im- 
mediately to disband them. They also began at once to take 
measures for raising an' armed force themselves. In a word, both 
sides began vigorously to prepare for war. 

Describe the progress and result of the civil war. 

It was not long before a great civil war broke out, which con- 
tinued for several years, producing every where throughout the 



278 OVERTHROW OF THE MONARCHY. 

kingdom a vast amount of confusion, distress, and sorrow. All 
the people of the country took sides. The nobles generally, and 
the Church of England, joined the king, while the common people, 
the merchants and artisans, and all the Presbyterians and Puritans, 
espoused the cause of the Parliament. The latter won the day. 

W/iat hecame of the king at the close of the %oar f 

The king was driven from one place to another, his friends and 
adherents growing fewer and fewer all the time, until at last all 
hope was gone, and he gave himself up a prisoner. The place 
where he was finally imprisoned was a castle in the south of En- 
gland, near the coast, called Carisbrooke Castle. Here the unhap- 
py monarch remained some time, his friends all the while trying 
to plan some means of effecting his escape and restoring him to 
his tlirone. 

Ex])lain the circumstances which icere connected with the trial 
of the king. 

At last the king himself became somewhat implicated in these 
plans, and the Parliament, finding it out, caused him to be brought 
to London and tried, as Strafford had been, for high treason. He 
was tried in Westminister Hall, with great and solemn ceremony, 
by an assembly of sixty or seventy judges. The trial lasted sev- 
eral days. At the end of it, the fallen king was found guilty and 
condemned to die. Of course, the tidings of this result produced 
the greatest excitement throughout the kingdom. 

What was the situation of his family at this time? 

The kino; had a wife and four children. His wife and his two 
oldest children had escaped to France, but the two youngest were 
still in the palace. The king's parting with them was very sad 
and affecting. They could scarcely understand that their father 
was about to be killed. 

Give an account of the preparations tnade for the execution. 

When the day for the execution came, a scaffold was built 
against the side of the palace of Whitehall, toward the street, and 



THE EESTORATION. 279 

a passage-way to it was made through a window. There was a 
block upon the scaffold, which was covered with black cloth, with 
a very broad axe by the side of it. The executioners were there 
too, wearing masks upon their faces, in order that they might not 
be known. The scaffold was surrounded with soldiers, some on 
horseback and others on foot. Beyond them the streets were filled 
with crowds of people. 

Give cm account of the execution itself. 

When the proper hour arrived, the king was brought out through 
the open window, and after a little time spent in prayers and the 
necessary preparations, the king laid his head upon the block, and 
one of the executioners severed it from the body at a single blow. 
The other executioner held it up in view of the people in the street, 
and cried out, "This is the head of a traitor." 

What governTnent was established by Parliament now that the 
royal 2:)oiver loas overthroiv7i f 

The English monarchy was thus entirely overthrown, and the 
people, through the Parliament, were in possession of supreme 
power. They established a republic, whicli continued about twelve 
years. During a part of this time, the chief magistrate of the 
country was Oliver Cromwell, who governed under the title of 
Protector. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

THE EE ST OR AT I ON. 

Who v^ere the Royalists^ and what were now their views and 
intentions f 

The party that favored the cause of the king were called Roy- 
alists, and this party, though now vanquished, was still very large 
and powerful. All the nobihty were on that side, and thousands 
of other great famiHes. These all abhorred the act of Parliament 



280 THE EESTORATION. 

in beheading the king, and considered it the greatest crime that 
could possibly be committed. They considered, too, that the crown 
now devolved at once upon the oldest son of the deceased king. 
His name was Charles too, and his title was accordingly Charles 
the Second. He was now in France. 

W/iat measures did they adojjt ? 

The Royalists immediately began to hold private communica- 
tions with Charles, and to concert schemes for bringing him into 
England again, and restoring him to his throne. At their secret 
meetings they would drink his health, styling him the king over 
the water. Very soon, too, a rebellion against the government of 
Parliament broke out in Ireland, and another in Scotland. Indeed, 
the Scottish people proclaimed Charles the Second king, and they 
raised an army to defend his rights. 

Describe the chayxictev and doings of Oliver Cromwell. 
Oliver Cromwell, who w^as the chief commander of the Parliament- 
ary forces, soon put an end to these risings. He was a blunt, 
rough man, but extremely prompt and energetic in all that he did. 
The people called him Old Noll ; and though they laughed at many 
things that he did, and especially at his way of doing them, still 
he was greatly respected for his talents and energy, and soon, as 
commander of the army, and leader in the execution of all the 
great measures that Parliament resolved upon, he rose to be more 
powerful than the Parliament itself. 

In what way did he finally proceed to get the government into 
his own hands f 

In the end, after he had managed so as to reduce the power of 
Parliament and its influence in the country to a very low point, 
he dissolved it entirely, and took the government into his own 
hands. He did this by coming into the Parliament House one 
morning with a company of soldiers, and sending all the members 
off. When they had all gone he came out himself, locked the door, 
and put the key in his pocket, and then the next day proclaimed 



THE RESTOEATION. 281 

that the Parliament was dissolved. He afterward called a Par- 
liament of his own, and governed England for many years extreme- 
ly wisely and well, under the title of Protector. It is said that 
he wished to be king, but the people would not bear it. 

Give an account of the expedition that the ])rince jplanned for 
recovering his kingdom. 

About eighteen months after King Charles the First was be- 
headed, his son, the young prince who was now in France, con- 
ceived the design of invading England and endeavoring to recover 
his throne. So he gathered together a small army, as many as 
the King of France, whose guest he then was, could conveniently 
furnish him, and sailed with them for Scotland. He thought it 
best to land in Scotland first, and then to march down through 
the country into England. "All the people of the country will 
join me," said he, " as I pass along, and, therefore, the longer my 
march is, the greater my army will be." 

What occurred on the landing of the expedition in Scotland? 

The expedition at the outset seemed to promise success. The 
Scotch received the king, on the whole, very well, though they were 
a little distrustful of him. They remembered how tyrannical and 
oppressive the father had been, and they were afraid to put them- 
selves loo much into the power of the son. They, however, con- 
cluded to receive him. They prescribed certain conditions on 
which they were willing to make him king of Scotland, and to aid 
him in recovering the English crown, and he, though very unwill- 
ing to make terms in this way with his subjects, finally concluded 
to accede to them. The people crowned him King of Scotland, and 
then raised an army for him to march into England with. 

How far did Prince Charles afterward advance into England, 
and xoho then came out to meet him ? 

Charles put himself at the head of this army, crossed the frontier, 
and advanced without any mishap as far as to the town of Worces- 
ter. This was about half way from the Scotch frontier to London. 



282 THE RESTORATION. 

By the time the king had reached Worcester, and had estab- 




mil. 

OB UORChhlLR 



lished himself in that town, Oliver Cromwell had collected his 
forces together, and was ready to meet him. 

W/iat teas the result of the battle f 

All England, and, indeed, all Europe, anxiously awaited the re- 
sult. As might have been expected, Cromwell gained the victory. 
Charles's army had been very little increased during his march 
through the country. Some few people came to join him, but not 
many ; so that Cromwell had only the troops that the king had 
brought with him from Scotland to contend with. These troops 
Cromwell attacked on all the great roads and approaches to the 
city, and conquered them at all points. Charles watched these 
battles from a steeple of a church within the town. 

What ^ art did the j^Tmce take i?i the battle, a?id what happen- 
ed to him in attempting to get back into the tovm ? 

Charles at last went out himself, at the head of a troop of High- 
landers, to see what he could do. He was beaten, the Highland- 



THE EESTORATION. 283 

ers were dispersed, and lie fled back toward the city ; but lie could 
not get in. The gate was choked up by a great ammunition-cart 
that had got wedged up there, in consequence of one of the oxen 
having been killed. The troop that was with him wei'e stopped. 
So he leaped from his horse, and scrambled in through the gate 
alone, on foot. He found every thing in the city in most dreadful 
confusion. Every body was giving up his cause, and preparing 
to fly. 

How did hefinalhj make his escajyef 

He gathered together a small number of attendants, obtained a 
fresh horse, and that evening, as soon as it began to be dark, he 
made his escape, and rode off for his life, across the country, by 
the most retired and solitary roads that he could find. 

Describe the princijpcd adveyitures vjhich he met loith during 
his flight. 

He knew that if he should be caught he would be beheaded, as 
his father had been. So his great desire was to escape from the 
country altogether and get back to France. He finally succeed- 
ed in doing this, though in accomplishing the journey to the sea- 
coast he met with a series of the most extraordinary and romantic 
adventures and hair -breadth escapes. At one time he disguised 
himself as a servant, and dyed his face to make it look sunburnt. 
At another time he was a woodman, carrying a bill-hook in his 
hand. Often he traveled all night in the darkness and rain. The 
country was full of people hunting for him every where, and w^atch- 
ing every suspicious-looking person, and several times he came 
very near being taken by them. He escaped only by the extreme 
watchfulness and care of his friends, especially those that belonged 
to the Royalist families that lived along the route that he w\is tak- 
ing. These friends passed him along from one house to the other, 
conveying him in disguise, or by night, and concealing him care- 
fiilly by day. It was very dangerous for them to do so, but they 
willingly incurred the hazard. 



284 THE EESTORATION. 

W/iat hind of sufferings did he endure ? 

Sometimes his enemies and pursuers were so numerous, and so 
close upon his track, that he could not safely stay in any house, 
and then he was obliged to be content with the best shelter he 
could find in the woods. He suffered, of course, extremely from 
the hardship and exposure. Indeed, at one time he became so 
exhausted that it seemed as if he could not possibly go any far- 
ther. His feet were blistered and sore. His clothes were drench- 
ed with rain. His shoes were full of wet sand and gravel which 
he had got into them in wading across the streams. In a word, 
he was in the most forlorn and wayworn condition imaginable, and 
was reduced almost to despair. 

Relate what hajyjpened at Boscobel, 

He arrived, while in this plight, in a wood near a place called 
Boscobel, which belonged to one of his friends. His pursuers 
were in all the country around, and it was known that they would 
soon come to Boscobel, so that it would not be safe for him to stay 
in the house. He went in, however, for a little time, to get warm- 
ed and dried, and to eat some supper. It was necessary, however, 
that every thing should be done in the utmost haste, and so, to 
dry the king's shoes, the good woman of the house poured hot 
ashes into them from the tire, wliile the king ate hurriedly the 
supper which they had provided for him. 

IIoio did the people conceal the prince at Boscohel? 

The people knew that it would not be safe to keep the king in 
the house except for a very short time, as a band of soldiers were 
expected every hour, who would certainly search the house very 
thoroughly to find the fugitive. So they took him out into a field, 
and hid him in the top of an oak tree, and there he remained all 
the next day, peeping out from time to time through the branches 
and leaves, watching the soldiers who were searching for him. 
He had one companion with him, an officer of his army, who was 
assisting him in his flight. While the king remained in the tree. 



THE RESTORATION. 



285 




KI.NG ClIAKLES AT EOSCOLEL 



he rested on a sort of cushion, which the officer placed for him in 
the best position he could find among the branches. 

What became of the prince at last ? 

When night came, the king and his companion descended from 
the tree and went into the house again, and soon afterward con- 
tinued their flight. They journeyed on in this manner, secretly, 
from the residence of one faithful adherent to another, encounter- 
ing many perplexities, and narrowly escaping many dangers, un- 
til at last they reached the sea-coast, and here, after a great deal 
of management and manoeuvering, they succeeded in embarking 
on board a small vessel, and making their escape to France, 

What VMS the character of Cromwell himself and of his gov- 
ernment of the country ? 

After this, Cromwell continued to govern the country, as a re- 
public or commonwealth, for several years, he himself being the 
chief ruler of it, under the name and style of Protector. His ad- 



286 



THE RESTORATION. 



ministration was very able and very successful. He was a man 
of great powers of mind, and of great honesty and integrity of pur- 
pose. He was engaged in several foreign wars, but he conducted 
them all to a speedy and successful termination. In a word, En- 
gland never had a more honest or capable ruler. 

Give an account of the manner in which Charles laas finally 
raised to the throne. 

At length Cromwell died, and there was nobody to succeed him 
strong enough to fill his place. The country was in great confu- 
sion. There was a party for the Parliament, a party for the army, 
and a party for the king. At length, the people of the country, 
tired of being without any head, sent to Charles the Second in 
France, inviting him to come to England and reascend the throne 
of his fathers. The king came at once. He landed at Dover, 
where he was joyfully received. Thus the monarchy was restored. 




LANDING OF CHARLES THE SECOND AT DOVER. 



THE EESTOEATION. 287 

What was the chaixicter of Charles the Second, and how did 
he reign ? 

It might have been supposed that the king would have been 
somewhat sobered by his misfortunes and sorrows, and that the 
dreadful fate which his father had met with would have taught 
him a useful lesson. But all this experience seems to have been 
entirely lost upon him. Instead of devoting himself to the gov- 
ernment of his kingdom, and the promotion of the welfare of his 
subjects, he gave himself up, as soon as he got possession of his 
throne, to every species of reckless dissipation and wickedness, 
and soon made his palace and his court the mockery of the world, 
for the open and shameless vices that reigned there. 

How did he usitally spend his time f 

The king hiinself spent his time in drinking, reveling, and in 
all sorts of disgraceful carousals with the very worst of company. 
He filled his palace with shameless women, and insulted his wife 
with intruding them upon her, and forcing her to receive them, and 
tormented her in this way to such a degree that her life w^as a per- 
fect burden to her. All this he did in the most barefaced and im- 
pudent way, violating the moral sense of the whole country with- 
out any compunction, and glorying in his shame. Many of the 
people of the country highly disapproved of this conduct, but they 
dreaded another revolution so much that they did not complain. 

What sort of measures did his government adojpt in res])ect to 
the religion of the country ? 

At the same time, his government resorted to the most harsh 
and tyrannical measures to promote what they considered the 
cause of religion. They enacted the severest laws against all 
that did not worship according to the usages of the Established 
Church. It was three months' imprisonment for any person to 
attend any religious service not according to the Prayer-book, 
and all the dungeons in the jails were crowded with persons con- 
fined under this law. 



288 THE EESTORATION. 

What lucis the first of the great calamities that signalized his 
reign f 

The reign of this king was signalized, too, by some of the great- 
est calamities that ever befell the kingdom of England. The wars 
with foreign nations were disastrous in their results. At one time 
a fleet of the enemies' ships came up the River Thames almost 
to London, burning and destroying every thing in their way. The 
whole city was thrown into a state of the greatest possible panic 
and confusion, and narrowly escaped b^ing destroyed. The fleet 
was, however, at length compelled to retire. 

Give an account of the plague of London, 

Then there was the great plague of London, which took place 
in this reign, during which a hundred thousand people died mis- 
erably, and scenes of horror were witnessed in all the streets and 
dwellings of the city utterly indescribable. The infected houses 
were marked with a red cross, and with the words "Lord have 
mercy upon us" inscribed upon them. The streets were desert- 
ed, except that carts went rumbling round at night, with men ring- 
ing bells and calling out, "Bring out your dead." These carts 
came to get the bodies in order to carry them away and bury them. 
They buried them by torch-light in great pits, and without any 
funeral service or ceremony whatever. 

Give an account of the great fire. 

Then, besides the plague, there was a great fire. This fire was 
one of the greatest conflagrations ever known. It broke out first 
in a little shop near the Av^ater, and thence it spread in every di- 
rection, and all attempts to stop it were unavailing. The houses 
were all built of wood, and the summer having been very hot and 
dry, they burned like stubble. The fire raged three days, and a 
large part of the city was destroyed. There were not houses 
enough left in the city to contain the people thus expelled from 
their homes, and so, for a long time after the fire, they were obliged 
to live in bivouac upon the ruins. 



THE EEVOLUTION. 289 

How did the king at last come to his end f 

Tlius it seemed, during the whole of this reign, as if the wick- 
edness of the king and his court was bringing down the special 
judgments of Heaven on the country. But all had no effect on 
the minds of the guilty ones. Indeed, the king grew worse and 
worse the longer he lived, and at length, after reigning in this mis- 
erable manner for twenty-five years, he was suddenly brought to 
his death in the midst of some of his carousals by a stroke of ap- 
oplexy. 



CHAPTEE XIV. 

THE EEVOLUTION. 



Who VMS Charles the Second^ s successor^ and what ivas his 
character f 

It would seem to be impossible that there could be a worse 
king or more despicable man than Charles the Second, and yet 
his brother James proved to be worse ; or, at aU events, he was 
more despised and hated by the English people. His character, 
and the measures of his government, awakened so strong and gen- 
eral a feeling of indignation, that the country rose at last by com- 
mon consent, and drove him out of the kingdom. They then es- 
tablished another prince upon the throne in his stead, excluding 
him and his posterity forever. 

Why were the jpeojple unwilling that James shoidd become 
king f 

The people were extremely unwilling that King James should 
reign at all, on account of his being of the Catholic religion, and 
also on account of his morose and gloomy character. He had 
been brought up a Catholic from his childhood, and the people ex- 
pected that, as soon as he should succeed to the throne, he would 
attempt to bring the government and the people of the country to 

T 



290 THE EEVOLUTION. 

the Catholic religion again, and in doing this, they knew, from his 
character, that he would persecute those who opposed him with 
the most relentless cruelty. 

What rival claimant was there to the croivn, and what were 
the reasons that led abortion of the 2:)eoj)le to prefer him? 

They very much regretted, therefore, that James was the heir 
to the crown. But he unquestionably was the heir, for Charles 
had no children that were entitled to succeed him, and James, 
being Charles's brother, was of course next in succession. There 
vfas a nobleman nearly related to Charles, named the Duke of 
.Monmouth. He was a very agreeable man, and a great favorite 
with all the people, and he conceived himself better entitled to the 
throne than James. He was a Protestant too, and so a large por- 
tion of the people preferred that he should be king. 

Descnhe the attempt that Monmouth made to gain the crown^ 
and the resxdt of it. 

Some time after James began to reign, Monmouth raised a re- 
bellion, and induced a great portion of the people in the southern 
and western parts of the island to join him. The rebellion, how- 
ever, was soon suppressed by James's armies, and Monmouth was 
taken prisoner. He was condemned to death, and was beheaded 
on a block, just as King Charles the First had been, only in his 
case the executioner had to strike three or four times before he 
succeeded in severing the head from the body. It was a horrid 
spectacle. 

Who was Judge Jeffries ? 

The first great display which James made of the cruelty of his 
disposition was in the measures which he took to punish the peo- 
ple in that part of the country which had been the scene of the re- 
bellion. He sent an infamous judge named Jeffries there, to try 
the people who were supposed to have taken part in it, and this 
judge performed the work with such terrible injustice and cruelty 
that his very name has been ever since universally abhorred. 



THE REVOLUTION. 



291 



Give an account of Jeffries' s j^roceedings at Exeter, 
One of the principal scenes of his cruelty was Exeter, a beauti- 
ful town situated in a very romantic spot on the River Wye, in 




^ lEW OF EXETER- 



the south of England. There was a list of several hundred pris- 
oners to be tried, and their cases were disposed of in the most 
brutal and summary manner possible. One man pleaded not 
guilty, and the judge ordered him to be taken out of court and 
hanged instantly. This so terrified the rest that they generally 
pleaded guilty at once. Indeed, to plead guilty afforded almost 
the only chance to the poor wretches of obtaining any sort of 
mercy. Great numbers were hung. The bodies of these were 
cut into pieces, and then dropped into caldrons of boiling pitch or 
tar, and hung up around the roadsides, in the streets, and at the 
very doors of the churches, as a terror to the people. 



292 THE EEVOLUTION. 

What did James think and say of Jeffries'' s conduct f 

King James was greatly pleased with these atrocities commit- 
ted by his judge. He called the expedition JefFries's campaign ; 
and if the slaughter of great multitudes of men is all that is nec- 
essary to make an expedition a campaign, this certainly was one. 
The people of the country, however, called it for many a long year 
afterward the Bloody Assize, and told the story of it to their chil- 
dren, shuddering. 

Describe the measures that Jaones resorted to for restoring the 
Catholic religion^ and the effects of them. 

As soon as the rebellion was subdued,* and the unhappy people 
who had taken, or were supposed to have taken, a part in it had 
been thus terribly punished, King James commenced a series of 
violent and oppressive measures to force back the kingdom of En- 
gland into communion with the Catholic Church. The bishops 
of the Church of England began to oppose these measures. This 
irritated the king, and he seized six of the bishops, and sent them 
in barges down the river to the Tower. The people then took 
sides with the bishops. They assembled in immense numbers on 
the banks of the rivers, when the barges went by, to express their 
sympathy with the bishops, and their undiminished confidence in 
them by asking their blessing. This made the king more angry 
than ever, and thus there was a great deal of trouble. 

How was it that the birth of Jameses son was a matter ofi^olit- 
Ical imjjortance f 

About this time the king had a son born. It might be sup- 
posed that this would be an event of no importance whatever in 
respect to these great public disputes and commotions, but it really 
was of the highest possible importance. Until this son was born 
the people were contented to wait patiently in their troubles, for the 
king's other children were daughters, and were both Protestants, 
and they thought that James, who was now somewhat advanced 
in life, would not live very long, and that then one of his daugh- 



THE EEVOLUTION. 293 

ters would succeed to the throne, and all the difficulty would be 
over. But now, since a son was born, all this bright prospect was 
at once clouded. The boy, they knew, would be brought up a 
Cathohc, and, of course, when he came to reign instead of his fa- 
ther, he would walk in his father's steps. 

What determination did the nohlesforin in this cj'isisf 

The leading nobles of the country determined to wait no longer, 
but to bring things to a crisis at once by deposing the king, and 
putting some Protestant member of the family on the throne in 
his stead. They did not now undertake, as they had done in 
King Charles the First's time, to revolutionize the government 
entirely, by dethroning the king and establishing a republic, but 
only to change the person of the sovereign by making some Prot- 
estant prince the king. This they thought they could easily do. 
especially if the prince so brought should be a descendant of the 
English royal line. 

Who tvas the Prince of Orange^ and what was his situation 
at this time f 

The most celebrated Protestant ruler in Europe at this time 
was a prince named William of Orange. He was the stadthold- 
er, as it was called — that is, a sort of king — of the Netherlands. 
Now it happened very fortunately that this William was closely 
related to the English royal line. He was himself a grandson of 
King Charles the First, his mother having been King Charles's 
daughter. Then, besides this, his wife was the daughter of King 
James. She was a Protestant, as has already been said. 

Hoio did the peojde of Eiigland contrive to open the negotia- 
tion icith hhn f 

So the people of England determined to confer the crown on 
William and Mary, and they secretly sent word to William that 
if he would come to England with a fleet and an army, they would 
make him king. William was a great and powerful prince before 
this in his own native country of the Netherlands. The engraving 



294 



THE REVOLUTION. 




WILLIAM OF ORANGE IN HIS CARRIAGE AT THE HAGUE. 

represents liim about to take a ride in his carriage in one of his 
cities in Holland. The cities of Holland were very wealthy in 
those days, and the nation was very powerful, both in fleets and 
armies. Indeed, in the wars that were then raging between the 
Catholic and Protestant nations of Europe, William of Orange 
was the great champion of the Protestant cause ; and this was 
one great reason why the people of England desired to have him 
become their king. 

Describe the circumstances of his comiiig to Eiigland, and the 
manner in which he was received. 

He accepted the invitation, and, after fitting out a great fleet and 



THE EEVOLUTION. 295 

army, he came to England. The people who were not in the se- 
cret of the movement were astonished to see this vast armament 
coming to their shores. They had supposed that the preparations 
which they knew that William had been making were intended 
for some expedition against the French, with whom he was then 
at war. But when they saw the immense fleet, extending mile? 
over the sea, coming through the straits between Dover and Calais, 
and then coasting along the southern shores of England, they were 
at first greatly surprised, and then, as soon as the rumor spread 
among them what the expedition was, and what was its destina- 
tion and object, they v/ere filled with joy. The ships sailed so 
near the shore that the people that assembled on the headlands 
could see the waving banners, and hear the bands of music play- 
ing on the decks in the morning air, and they responded with 
long and joyful shouts and acclamations. 

W/icd became of James and his party f 

King James himself was greatly terrified. He sent off his lit- 
tle son, the Prince of Wales, whose birth had hastened this threat- 
ened revolution, to the southern coast, with a view of conveying 
him to France, and then immediately began to take hurried meas- 
ures to concentrate his forces for the defense of his kingdom. But 
he found that he could not rely upon any of his men, either officers 
or soldiers. One division after another forsook him and went over 
to the enemy. Even those whom he had considered his most in- 
timate and devoted friends went with the rest. 

Give an account of the manner in which his daughter and 
his son-in-law! deserted him. 

One night, in the midst of his troubles, he had two of his con- 
fidants to sup with him. One of them was his son-in-law, the 
husband of his daughter Anne. They sat late, and discussed with 
the king all his plans ; and then, when the king came to inquire 
for them in the morning, he learned that, as soon as they had left 
his table, they had taken horse and ridden off to join the Prince 



296 THE EEVOLUTION. 

of Orange. Anne herself, his daughter, soon went away too. She 
made her escape from the palace in the night. The king, when 
he heard of it, exclaimed, " God help me ! my very children have 
forsaken me." 

Describe the subsequent progress of the Revolution, 

Thus things went on. The whole country was in a state of 
wild excitement. The Roman priests and monks, who had sur- 
rounded James in his prosperity, now, foreseeing what was in 
store for them, fled in all directions. Towns and cities all along 
the southern coast were issuing proclamations and declarations for 
the new king ; while the more violent of the Protestants broke 
out into open violence in many parts of the kingdom, and added 
to the general confusion by pulling down crosses, and burning 
Roman Catholic convents and chapels with mobs and rioting. 

What became of the family of the king f 

The king's son — the little Prince of Wales — was first sent to 
Portsmouth, in order to be carried out of the country, but he was 
stopped and brought back to London. The king himself now be- 
came greatly alarmed for his own personal safety. He gave up 
all hope of retaining his kingdom, and only hoped to find some 
means of escaping with his wife and son. So he sent the queen 
and the infant prince across the Thames in the night to Lambeth 
palace. The queen was disguised as an Italian lady. At Lam- 
beth the two fugitives were put into a coach, and conveyed as rap- 
idly as possible to Gravesend, near the mouth of the Thames, 
and there sent in a yacht to Calais. The king himself, after 
much difficulty, succeeded in following them. 

Relate what occurred in the mean time in respect to the Prince 
of Orange. 

In the mean time, the Prince of Orange had landed from his 
fleet, and was received by distinguished personages of the king- 
dom, who awaited him on the shore, and hailed him with the ut- 
most joy and satisfaction. 



THE rvEYOLUTION. 



297 




LANDING OF WILLIAM, PRINCE OF ORANGE. 

In what manner did James attempt to make his escajpefrom 
the country, and why did he not succeed f 

As for the king, he met with a series of the most remarkable ad- 
ventures in his attempt to escape to France. His object was to 
get, as soon as possible, across the Channel. The boat that he 
first put off in from the English coast did not succeed in making 
the voyage at all. The captain found, soon after he left the shore, 
that his vessel was not properly ballasted, so that there was dan- 
ger of her being upset in case a wind should arise. Accordingly, 
after going a little way down the mouth of the Thames, he turned 

N2 



298 THE EE VOLUTION. 

to the land again at an island on the coast called Sheppey Island, 
in order to get more ballast. 

Give an account of ivhat hajjpeiiecl at Shej^jpey Island. 

Here a rabble of people, consisting of fishermen, smugglers, and 
sailors, saw the king on board the boat. They knew that he was 
some stranger, and they began to pull him about and make fun 
of him, calling him a hatchet-faced Jesuit and other such names. 
Then he made himself known to them, saying he was their king, 
and begged them to let him alone, but this made little difference. 
Indeed, the king was so terrified and so broken down by his 
misfortunes and sorrows that he seemed like a complete wreck. 
One moment he would threaten his persecutors, then he would fall 
on his knees and implore their mercy. He said the Prince of Or- 
ange was seeking his life, and he begged them to save him. Then 
he would shout out, "A boat! A boat!" like an insane man. 
Finally, he contrived to get some paper and write a note to the 
lieutenant of the county. The lieutenant came with a force, and. 
finding who the stranger was, took him out of the hands of hi.'^ 
tormentors and sent him back to London. 

How did the hing finally make his escajje ? 

The government were sorry to have him back again. They 
would have much prefeiTcd to have had the people of the coast 
let him go. So they made no effort to confine him, and in a few 
days he escaped again, and this time he succeeded in getting safe 
to France. 

Hoia was the government settled after the flight of the hing f 

The English Parliament then decreed that James, since he 
had abandoned the country, was to be considered as having abdi- 
cated the crown, and they proceeded to settle the crown upon Will- 
iam and Mary, the Prince and Princess of Orange, and their suc- 
cessors forever. They also, at the same time, made some con- 
siderable changes in the constitution of the kingdom, so as very 
much to curtail and limit the power of the kings, and secure 



THE ENGLISH ARISTOCRACY. 299 

greater influence and control to tlie nobles, and greater liberty 
to the people. 

Give an account of the efforts lohich James onade to recover 
his hingdoiyi, 

James afterward made an effort to recover liis kingdom, but he 
did not succeed. The King of France furnished him with an army, 
and with it he landed in Ireland, but the people were against him, 
and his army was defeated. He himself, after the battle, made 
his escape to France, and there he ended his days in great seclu- 
sion. His son James then pretended that he was by right the 
king of England, and he made an effort too to recover the crown. 
He was called the Pretender. He made his landing in Scotland, 
but he w^as as unsuccessful as his father, and was obliged to re- 
turn to France and spend his days there a private man. 

Who loere the jprinci])al Jdngs of the Stuart line? 

This was the end of what is called in history the Stuart lino. 
Stuart was the family name of the kings of Scotland. It came 
from the fact that the ancestors of that house were originally he- 
reditary stewards of some ancient royal line. There were four 
kings of the Stuart line in the English succession, James the First, 
Charles the First, Charles the Second, and James the Second. 
The whole history of this line is that of one continued struggle for 
the possession of despotic power over the people of England. 



CHAPTER XY. 

THE ENGLISH ARISTOCRACY. 

What great change tooh jplace in the practical operation of the 
govermnent after the Revolution f 

It was mainly through the power and influence of the great fam- 
ilies, the descendants of the principal generals and officers of state 
who came over with William the Conqueror, that King William 



300 THE ENGLISH AEISTOCEACY. 

was invited over from Holland, and his branch of the royal line 
was estabhshed on the throne ; and it was they that imposed the 
terms and restrictions under which he should reign. These terms 
and restrictions were such that the power of the government, in 
a short time after the Kevolution, passed almost entirely from the 
hands of the kings to that of the nobles. These nobles are called 
collectively the English aristocracy. They constitute the most 
wealthy and powerful band of aristocrats in the world. 

What position do the aristocracy occupy? 

They feel entirely above the mass of the people, and never as- 
sociate with them, except in some few and rare cases, in the small- 
est degree. The mass of the people, on the other hand, look up 
to them with the profoundest veneration and awe. 

Describe their mode of life. 

They live in great castles and palace-like halls, scattered here 
and there over the country. Each one owns an immense territory 
of land, and the farmers and tenants who cultivate the ground have 
to pay to him a large share of the value of what they raise for rent. 
This enables them to live in great splendor, without having any 
thing to do. The only business they will do is attending to the 
care of their estates, and to the government of the country. 

In what light do they regard the indiistrial pursuits of the 
community ? 

Indeed, most of them are so proud and haughty that they would 
almost rather starve than be engaged, even indirectly, in any use- 
ful employment of commerce or manufactures. Although the 
power and prosperity of the country rests entirely on its com- 
merce and manufactures, and it is only through the wealth-pro- 
ducing power of these pursuits that they can get their own rents 
from their tenants, still they seem to despise every one who is in 
any way connected with business of this kind, and call them, con- 
temptuously, tradesmen. The mass of the people, however, seem 
to submit to this ill treatment very patiently. Instead of com- 



THE ENGLISH ARISTOCRACY. 301 

plaining, they seem rather pleased that there is in their country so 
exalted a class to crown and adorn their system of society. 

Explain the system of government by tvhich the aristocracy 
exercise their control. 

The aristocracy govern the country through Parliament. They 
themselves constitute the House of Lords, and they have power 
and influence enough to control the House of Commons, so that 
both houses virtually represent the upper classes alone. They 
have arranged it so that the king can not carry on the government 
himself. He must appoint ministers to do it. But the ministers 
can do nothing without Parliament, for Parliament supplies all the 
money. Thus, if the ministers do not do what pleases Parliament, 
they are obliged immediately to resign, and no other minister will 
take their places except such as are willing to do what Parliament 
wishes, for they know it would be useless. 

What is thejyosition of the sovereign under this system? 

Thus the king, as the sovereign, is entirely powerless. It is 
the same with the queen. She lives in splendid palaces, and is 
followed by a magnificent retinue, and expends a vast amount of 
money, and is looked up to by the nation at large as a sort of ideal 
head — a focus, as it were, for the concentration of the rays of pa- 
triotism and loyalty, while the aristocracy alone govern the land. 

What is the law of jprimogeniture^ and what is the operation 
of it? 

The aristocracy of England is rendered permanent from gen- 
eration to generation by the law of primogeniture. Primogeni- 
ture mQ2iTi^ first hirth, and the law of primogeniture ordains that 
when a nobleman dies, all his landed estate, the property from 
which he derives his annual wealth and all his importance, is not 
divided among his children, but goes entire to the oldest son. 
Were it not for this, these great estates would soon be divided 
up, and the families of the aristocracy would descend to the gen- 
eral level of society. The law of primogeniture, however, holds 



302 THE ENGLISH AKISTOCRACY. 

the property together, and hands it down from one generation to 
another entire. The law is expressly intended for the purpose of 
thus maintaining the ascendency of the privileged class, from gen- 
eration to generation, through all time. 

What becomes of the younger sons of the aristocracy ? 

The younger sons of the aristocracy are not left entirely desti- 
tute, for their fathers, though they can not give them any share 
uf the ancient family inheritance, can still, if they please, lay up 
and save something for them from their annual income. Then 
(here are three employments which they can engage in that are 
considered genteel, and only three. They may enter the army, 
or the navy, or the Church. 

JIoio are the army, the navy, and the Church managed so as 
to sustain this system ? 

It is partly to provide places and income for the younger sons 
of the nobility that the army, and the navy, and the Church of 
England have been organized on their present footing. They are 
all arranged on the grandest scale, and in all the higher ranks of 
each the pay and emoluments are very great. All these offices 
are kept closely reserved for the families and relatives of the aris- 
tocracy. The industrial class throughout the kingdom are, "with 
very few and rare exceptions, entirely excluded from them. 

What has been the general condition of the kingdom under the 
government of the aristocracy ? 

Tlie English aristocracy has controlled the government of the 
country now for about one hundred and fifty years, and during this 
time the greatness, power, and wealth of the kingdom has risen to 
a higlier elevation, perhaps, than any nation ever attained before. 

What is the true foundation of this prosperity f 

The secret of this apparent prosperity and success is, not the 
wise and good management of the governing classes, but the im- 
mense power that has been put into their hands through the na- 
tional wealth created by the producing classes. 



THE ENGLISH ARISTOCKACY. 303 

How has the government itself been managed f 

The government itself has still been managed with great ability. 
The army and navy have usually been victorious in all the wars 
that England has been engaged in. By means of them the power 
of the kingdom has been extended all over the world, and immense 
extents of country have been brought under British sway, and arc 
now held as possessions or colonies. 

What is the system of rewards offered to distinguished pxiblic 
servants f 

Many very great and distinguished commanders have arisen from 
time to time, and have acquired a very exalted military fame. The 
government have encouraged these efforts by rewarding successful 
generals and statesmen in the most profuse and generous manner. 
They raise them to the highest rank of the nobility, and grant 
them immense estates, and render to them, during all the remain- 
der of their lives, the most distinguished honors. On the follow- 
ing page is an engraving representing a palace built at the expense 
of the government for one of tliese heroes, the Duke of Marlborough, 
who flourished in the reign of Queen Anne. The name of the pal- 
ace is Blenheim House. It was so named in commemoration of 
one of the duke's greatest battles, which was fought at a place on 
the Continent called Blenheim. 

What are the tioo great sources of the mechanical and manu- 
facturing j^ower of Great Britain f 

While England has been thus, for the last century and a half, 
extending its power externally all over the world, it has been ad- 
vancing still more rapidly in internal wealth and prosperity. In- 
deed, it is undoubtedly to the increase of wealth, and of mechani- 
cal and manufacturing power within the country, that its external 
prosperity is mainly owing. In the northwestern part of the isl- 
and there lie immense beds of iron and coal, at a distance of a few 
hundred feet below the surface, and these mines, opened and work- 
ed with the skill and energy that characterize the English people, 



304 



THE ENGLISH ARISTOCKACY. 



iTP 'FiVl 




JOHN CHURCIIILI/S PRESENT. 



iiave proved an inexhaustible source of wealth and power. The 
people have exercised a great deal of inventive genius, too, in 
turning these resources to good account. They have invented the 
steam-engine, and the spinning-jenny, and the power-loom, and a 
multitude of other labor-saving engines, by which a few men, with 
the help of coal, can do the work of thousands. It is the coal, and 
not the steam, that is the real source of power. The steam is only 
the vehicle of it. 

Describe the situation and the appearance of the manufac- 
turing district. 

In the northwestern part of England there is a large tract of 
country that is entirely covered with these mining and manufac- 
turing establishments. Every valley is filled with villages of work- 
rdiops and forges. Tall chimneys, pouring out great volumes of 



THE ENGLISH ARISTOCRACY. 



305 




ENGLISH IRON-WORKS. 



dense black smoke day and night, rise every where into the air, 
and little railways, like a complicated network, with trains of coal- 
vans, iron-vans, and cars loaded with every other species of mer- 
chandise, cover the ground. The sound of the hammer and the 
puff of steam fill the air by day, while lurid tires, illuminating the 
whole horizon, glow at night. The spectacle is truly sublime. 

Describe the commercial system of England, 

Besides her manufacturing arts, England has been greatly en- 
riched, also, by commerce. The merchants have built ships, and 
sent them all over the world to buy the products of every land, and 
bring them home to the immense docks and depots that they have 
established in Liverpool and London. There the whole world 
comes to buy, and thus England has made herself the centre, as it 
were, of the commerce and navigation of the whole human race. 

What imjportant checks has the progress of the British empire 
received ? 

These are the true elements of the wealth, prosperity, and pow- 

U 



306 THE ENGLISH AEISTOCEACY. 

er of England, and through their influence the grandeur of the king- 
dom, and its influence in the world, have been steadily increased 
ever since the aristocracy came into power. The empire has, how- 
ever, met with some checks and reverses. The most important, 
perhaps, of all was the separation of the American colonies from 
the mother country in 1776. 

What was the cause of the sejparation of the colonies from the 
mother country f 

The cause of this separation was, that these colonies became 
very strong, and at last they found themselves unwilling to be 
any longer governed by a company of proud nobles three thousand 
miles away, in the only way in which the English aristocracy could 
govern them consistently with their general system — that is, by 
keeping the power entirely in their own hands, and compelling the 
colonies to submit. The colonies insisted that if they were taxed 
to pay the general expenses of the empire, they ought to have a 
voice in the government. This the aristocracy could not accede 
to without departing entirely from their principle, which was, that 
the empire should be ruled by the privileged class, since there 
were none of that class in the colonies. This dispute ended in a 
war, and the war ended in separating the colonies from the mother 
country, and establishing in America a separate and independent 
government. 



P A E T III. 



AMERICAN HISTORY. 



THE STORY OF HISTORY. 

PART III. 

AMERICAN HISTORY. 
CHAPTER I. 

THE ABORIGINES. 

What was the condition of the American continent when it 
was first discovered f 

The word Aborigines means tlie original inhabitants of any 
country. The Aborigines of America were Indians. Before the 
country was discovered by the Europeans it was quite thickly in- 
habited, through the whole extent of it, by a great many distinct 
nations or tribes of Indians. They lived, in a great measure, like 
wild animals. 

Describe the general characteristics of the Indians. 
The different nations and tribes of these Indians were very dis- 
tinct from each other, while yet there was a general resemblance 
among them all. Their faces were of a copper color, and their hah 
was long, black, and straight. Their cheek-bones were high, and 
this gave their countenances a peculiar and a singular expression. 
What words of their language still remain in use among us t 
The different nations spoke different languages, and yet there 
was a general resemblance among all, as if all had proceeded from 
one origin. They had names for all the great rivers, lakes, mount- 
ains, and other natural features of the country. Some of the 
names of places in use at the present day are Indian names. 
Other places have been named anew by the English or French 
people who discovered and settled the country. 



310 THE ABOEIGINES. 

How does it hajp^^en that many of the Lidian names are so 
long f 

Some of the Indian names are these : Kennebec, Androscoggin, 
Monadnoc, which is a mountain, Mississippi, Missouri, Cayuga, 
Michigan, Michilimackinac, Ompompanoosuc. Some of the names 
are pretty long. The reason is that they are made up of several 
different words, as the Indians spoke them, while we write them 
as one word ; just as if the Indians were to go to England, where 
there is a place called The Elephant and Castle, and were to write 
and call it Elephantandcastle, or were to call The mouth of the 
Eiver The Mouthoftheriver. 

What exam^ples can you give of English names ofj^lccces sub- 
stitiUedfor the Indian ones? 

Europeans thus retained many of the Indian names of the places 
in this country, but to other places they gave names of their own. 
These are some of the names of their own which they gave : the 
White Mountains, the Green Mountains, Hudson River, New 
York. The Indian name for the place where New York now 
stands was ]\Ianhattan. 

Which are generally to he 2:)ref erred, the English or the Indian 
names ? 

Some persons like the Indian names best, but others think 
they have an uncouth and barbarous sound. At any rate, by 
reading them, we form some idea of the sound of the language 
which the Indians used. 

Describe the wigioams that the Indians lived in. 

The Indians were accustomed to live in huts which they called 
wigwams. These were made in various ways, but were always 
light and easily taken to pieces, in order that they might be re- 
moved from place to place, as the Indians rambled about in search 
of game. On the opposite page is a view of three or four Indian 
wigwams standing on the bank of a stream. The frames of them 
are made, as you see, by poles set in the ground, and tied together 



THE ABORIGINES. 



31 




WIGWAMS. 



at the top, and they are covered with sheets formed of cloth, or of 
the bark of trees, or mats, or some other suitable material, such as 
the Indians could make or procure. There is a small opening left 
on one side to serve as a door. The interior of these wigwams 
would seem to us to be comfortless enough. And they must have 
been really comfortless to the Indians sometimes, especially when 
all the family were driven into them by cold weather or storms. 



312 



THE ABOEIGINES. 



They could have a fire, it is true, but there was no chimney other 
tlian an opening in the roof to allow the smoke to go out. 




IMLI.IOIl Ot X W lew A.M. 



Did they possess any means of navigation? 

The Indians liked very much to build their wigwams on the 
banks of rivers and lakes, and they liked, too, to travel on rivers 
and lakes in going from place to place in search of new hunting- 
grounds. For this purpose, they used to make boats in various 
ways. 

What were the different ways they had of making boats f 

One way was to cut down a tree with a stone hatchet, and then 
fashion the trunk of it into the form of a boat. We see such a 
boat as this in the picture of the wigwams. Another way of mak- 
ing boats which the Indians practiced was to make a frame of slen- 
der withes of wood, and then cover it with sheets of bircli bark. 
This birch bark is very thin and flexible. It peels off from the 



THE ABOEIGINES. 313 

tree almost like paper. The Indians make very light and tight 
boats in this way. 

Crive an accoimt of the way in which they managed in remov^ 
ing from jplace to place. 

When they could find no more animals to hunt in the place 
where they w^ere, they would take down their wigwams, and roll 
up the coverings, and put them in their boats, and then take their 
wives and children, and the few household implements they pos- 
sessed, and sail away to some new place where there was a probabil- 
ity that game might be more plentiful. The poles of their wig- 
wams they would leave behind. 

What were their inodes of taking game f 

The Indians had two ways of taking the animals they required 
for food. One way was to catch them in traps, and the other way 
was to shoot them with hows and arrows, or kill them with spears. 
The business of hunting, and also of fighting the other tribes in 
case of war, belonged to the men. All other kinds of work be- 
longed to the women. 

What was their idea of dress f 

The men, in time of war, felt great pride in adorning themselves 
with gay dresses, and in fabricating arms of nice workmanship. 
The engraving below represents a party of Indian warriors ready to 




INDIAN WAUmORS. 



314 THE ABOEIGINES. 

go forth to battle, as they appear at the present day. Their arms 
consist of bows and arrows, battle-axes, clubs, and one of them 
has a gun. The gun, of course, the Indians did not make them- 
selves. They purchase such things as these of white persons now, 
and before the whites came they had no guns. Observe how they 
have ornamented then* persons with feathers and embroidery. One 
of them has a scalp in his hand, which he has taken from the 
head of his enemy. 

How do 77iankincl geyierally seem to regard the work of war f 

One would suppose that the work of going forth to kill his fel- 
low-creatures, if man could ever be induced to consider it his duty 
at all, would seem to him the most painful and distressing duty 
that he could possibly be called upon to perform ; but, instead of 
this, there is nothing that man seems so to rejoice in. In all na- 
tions, savage and civilized, he decks himself, when he is going out 
to fight and kill, in the most gay and gaudy colors, and provides 
the most animating music, and takes leave of his friends and his 
home with songs and dances, and fetes of rejoicing, as if the dread- 
ful occupation before him filled him with anticipations of delight. 

What loere the ojnnions of the Indians in resj^ect to the differ- 
ent pursuits of life f 

The Indians were proud and happy when they were engaged in 
combat with the tribes around them. Next to these wars they 
were best pleased with hunting, for this was a species of fighting, 
the wild animals in the forests that they pursued being looked 
upon somewhat as foes. They, however, despised all labor. They 
sometimes possessed fields of corn, but they compelled the women 
to plant and hoe it, and to perform all other domestic labors. 
They would themselves do nothing when at home except make 
bows and arrows, or carve ornaments upon their clubs, or fashion 
other warlike weapons. To hunt and to fight was honorable, but 
labor in any branch of useful industry they considered beneath 
them. 



THE ABORIGINES. 315 

Is there any thing analogous to this among civilized nations ? 

There is a large class of aristocratic personages in many highly 
civilized countries who entertain the same ideas. They are will- 
ing to hunt and fight, and to rule over and govern other men, but 
they look with scorn on every species of peaceful industry. This 
is particularly the case in the monarchical countries of Europe. 
The aristocracy of England have always entertained these ideas, 
and perhaps never more strongly than at the present day. 

What Indian nations attained to some degree of civilization f 

In Mexico and in some parts of South America there were sev- 
eral aboriginal nations that had made great advances in civiliza- 
tion before America was discovered by the Europeans. They had 
built towns, palaces, and temples, and had made great advances 
in many of the arts of life ; but those that lived within the pres- 
ent limits of the United States were mere wandering tribes, that 
existed almost altogether on the natural productions of the forest, 
and possessed scarcely any permanent habitations. 

What became of the Indians and of their lands when the Eu- 
ropeans came to settle in the country f 

When America was discovered and began to be settled by the 
whites, the Indians were gradually forced to retire from those parts 
of the country which the white men occupied. Sometimes the 
white men would buy the lands of the Indians, paying them in 
blankets, knives, axes, guns, gunpowder, and rum, and such other 
things as the Indians could use in their wild and wandering mode 
of life. 

Describe the quarrels that sometimes arose. 

Occasionally quarrels would arise, which would lead to wars be- 
tween the Indian tribes and the white settlers. In these cases, 
the Indians would sometimes come rushing into the villages at 
midnight with dreadful yells and outcries, and massacre the in- 
habitants and burn the houses. At other times they would lurk 
in ambush among the trees near the fields where the white men 



316 



THE ABORIGINES. 




INDIANS IN AMBUSH. 



were at work, and shoot them with the guns and gunpowder which 
they had bought of them before. 

Give an account of the captives which the Indians tnade, and 
of their loay of treating them. 

Not unfrequently it happened that children from the families of 
some of the settlers were seized and carried off as captives, and 
kept in the wigwam for many years. Whenever the Indians suc- 
ceeded in getting a white child in their possession in this way, 
they usually treated him kindly, and often made him a favorite and 
pet. They regarded him and treated him much as a boy would 
treat a young squirrel or young fox that he had succeeded in catch- 
ing in the woods and bringing home. Still it was a dreadful ca- 
lamity to the poor child to be taken thus away from his father 
and mother, and from the comforts and pleasures of his home, and 
compelled to dwell all his life with these rude and cruel savages. 
As for the mothers of these unhappy captives, they were almost 
heart-broken to lose their children thus. They were generally far 



THE ABOEIGINES. 



317 



more distressed than tliej would have been in following them to 
their graves. 

W/iat effects did a state of peace with the Europeans produce 
on the Indians f 

Sometimes the Indian tribes and the people of the white settle- 
ments that were near them would live for a considerable period at 
peace with each other ; but the Indians were generally as much 
injured by the peaceful intercourse with the whites as by the wars. 
The chief articles that they bought of the white men were gun- 
powder and rum, and the rum exerted an awful influence in de- 
moralizing and destroying them. The effect of it upon them was 
to make them perfectly insane, and the imagination can scarcely 




INDIAN CAROUSALS. 



conceive the horrors of the drunken orgies which were sometimes 
witnessed around their midnidit fires. 

o 

What is the present state of the Indian tribes f 
From these causes the Indians have been gradually melting 
away and disappearing, until now there are few left on this side of 
the Mississippi River. Beyond the Mississippi the country is still 



318 COLUMBUS. 

filled with them, but their numbers are gradually diminishing, and 
there is no doubt that in time they will entirely disappear. 

What dealings does the govermnent of the United States have 
with them f 

The government of the United States makes treaties with the 
different tribes from time to time for the purpose of purchasing 
their lands, as fast as they are wanted for the use of the white set- 
tlers. It pays them for these lands in goods of various kinds, 
such as the Indians require for their use, and sometimes in mon- 
ey. Delegations from these tribes often go to Washington to con- 
fer with the President and the government in respect to these 
treaties, and other such business. In such cases they are always 
very kindly received, and treated with great courtesy. 

Do any remnants of the eastern tribes still remain f 

A few remains of the tribes that formerly occupied the country 
on the Atlantic coast still exist. We sometimes see their en- 
campments on the banks of streams, or near the borders of the 
lakes, and sometimes we see individuals of the race, dressed in 
their own peculiar garb, in the streets of cities and towns. They, 
however, remain completely distinct from the white population, and 
still live, and dress, and act almost entirely as their ancestors did 
before the country was discovered. 



CHAPTER II. 

COLUMBUS. 

What v-as the reason that this continent remained so long un- 
known to the EuTO])eansf 

For a great many centuries the continent of America remained 
in the possession of those Indian tribes, without being known to 
the rest of the world at all. The nations of Europe had not the 
least idea of the existence of any such land or of any such people. 



COLUMBUS. 319 

The distance across the Atlantic Ocean from Europe to America 
is about three thousand miles, and that was farther than any ships 
had then ever sailed away from the shore. They had made pretty 
distant voyages in those days along the coast, but they had never 
gone very far out upon the open sea. 

Why had not the navigators of those days made long voyages 
on the open sea ? 

The reason why they did not venture far away from the land in 
those days was because they had then no means of guiding their 
ships on their course. The mariner's compass was not known, 
and there was no way by which a ship could be guided, when out 
of sight of land, except by the sun and the stars, and these, in 
cloudy weather, could not be seen. Of course, it would be very 
unsafe, under these circumstances, for a ship to venture far from 
the shore. 

When and by ivhom was Ame7nca discovered at last ? 

At length, between three and four hundred years ago, the exist- 
ence of America was discovered, and the event, when it occurred, 
produced among all the nations of Europe a feeling of great as- 
tonishment. The first discovery was made by Christopher Co- 
lumbus. The year was 1492. 

What nations were most interested in making discoveries in 
those days, and lohat had they done f 

It happened that at that period there was a great deal of inter- 
est felt by many different nations in making voyages of discovery 
in various parts of the world. The three nations that were most 
engaged in these expeditions were the Spanish, the Portuguese, 
and the Dutch. The governments of these countries fitted out 
many ships for such purposes. Some they sent to the northern 
shores of Europe to explore the Arctic Seas, and some they sent 
to the southward, along the coast of Africa, on the way to India. 
None, however, had yet attempted to venture very far across the 
Atlantic, to see what could be found there. 



320 



COLUMBUS. 



Give an account of Christopher Columbus, 

At length, about 
A.D. 1484, Chris- 
topher Columbus 
made his appear- 
ance in Lisbon, at 
that time a great 
and celebrated sea- 
port. He came in 
from sea, but what 
his previous histo- 
ry had been no one 
knows. And yet 
he was then quite 
advanced in life. 
He was about for- 
ty-eight years old. 
In his figure and 
bearing he was tall 
and commanding, 
and exceedingly graceful and winning, though very grave and se- 
rious, in his manners. The above engraving represents a view of 
him as he then appeared. His countenance expresses the grav- 
ity and solemnity that mark his character. 

What imre his religious character and impressions f 
He was a very devout man, and lived, as it seemed, in daily and 
constant communion with God. It was inpressed strongly upon 
his mind that God had destined him to the fulfillment of some high 
and important duty, in which the welfare of mankind was deeply 
concerned. Look upon his face, and observe the calm, but serious 
and solemn expression that marks it. 

Relate the circumstances of his marriage. 

At the chapel where Columbus was accustomed to worship in 




POKIKAIT OF COLLMIiLb. 



COLUMBUS. 321 

Lisbon, lie saw and at length became acquainted with a lady 
mamed Donna Felipa. He soon formed an attachment for her, and 
after a time thej were married. She was the daughter, as it hap- 
pened, of a distinguished navigator of those days, and she had a 
great many charts, journals, and other manuscripts which had be- 
longed to her father. These Columbus read, and they tended to 
deepen and strengthen the interest he had always felt for the sea. 

How did Columbus reason in respect to the route to India ? 

Columbus knew that the earth was a globe, and that conse- 
quently, if a person were to travel toward the east or toward the 
west until they had gone far enough to encircle it, they would come 
back again to the place that they set out from. Now various ad- 
venturers in those days had gone to the eastward very far. Some 
had journeyed across the continent by land. Others had gone 
round through the southern oceans by water. They had finally 
reached India, and Columbus supposed that if they had only gone 
on somewhat farther, they would have come home again by the 
way of the Atlantic Ocean, that is, from the opposite quarter of the 
compass to that toward which they went away. They went away 
toward the east, and they would come home, he thought, from the 
west. "And in the same manner," said he to himself, "if they 
would sail to the west, they would soon reach India, and so might 
come home from toward the east." 

Describe the illustration introduced to explain how the circum- 
ference of the earth may be ineasured without going round it, 

Columbus thought he knew pretty correctly how large the earth 
was, and how great the distance was which must be sailed to go 
around it. It may seem strange that this could be known at all 
when nobody had actually gone round it to measure the distance. 
It was something like this. Suppose, in walking in the country, 
you were to come to a large circular field, inclosed with a high 
fence, so that you could not see what was within. You undertake 
to Avalk around it. Now, by noticing the curvature of the bound- 

X 



322 COLUMBUS. 

aiy as you go along, and comparing the distance tliat you travel 
with it, you could form a pretty accurate judgment of the portion 
of the circumference that you had passed over at any time. You 
would say, *' We must be a quarter round, or we must he half 
round," as the case might be. A mathematician, who had instru- 
ments to measure the curvature and the distance, could, in such a 
case, tell exactly, at any time, how much of the circle was still left. 
What portion of the earth's circumfere7ice did Columbus sup- 
pose to have been e.jcploredf 

This is precisely the case in going round the earth. The curva- 
ture of the part that any navigator traverses can easily be meas- 
ured by means of instruments and observations of the stars. It 
was in this way that Columbus knew what portion of the circum- 
ference of the earth remained to be explored. He thought it was 
about one third of the whole ; and that the portion which had been 
already passed over by travelers, from the shores of the Atlantic to 
the easternmost known portions pf India, was about two thirds. 
IIoio far was Columbus right in his calculations f 
Columbus was right in the theory of his calculations, but not 
entirely coiTcct in the results. Instead of there being only one 
third of the earth's circumference remaining to be explored, there 
was more than half. Such an error as this is what happens al- 
most invariably to inventors and discoverers. They see very 
clearly the end which they wish to attain, and are right in respect 
to the theoretical truth and practicability of it, but they underes- 
timate altogether the length or the difficulties of the way. 
What idea did Columbus form of the situation of India f 
Columbus had, of course, no means of knowing whether the 
whole of the distance which yet remained to be explored of the 
earth's circumference was water or not, but he supposed that a 
great part of it was land. He thought that India extended much 
farther round the world toward the east, beyond where any Euro- 
pean travelers had been. It might very probably, he thought, 



COLUMBUS. 323 

extend so far that only a short distance would remain across the 
xitlantic Ocean to the European shores. At any rate, he resolved 
that, if in any way he could obtain ships and sailors, he would set 
sail to the west from Europe, and go on till he came to land. 

What were the inotives that induced Columbus to set out on 
his voyage f 

In forming these plans and designs, Columbus was actuated in 
a very high degree by the spirit of lofty religious devotion that 
marked his character. Mingled with this, however, there were 
strong impulses of worldly ambition, and love of wealth and pow- 
er. He truly thought that, by opening a near way to India by 
the west, he should promote the glory of God and advance his 
kingdom ; but he also intended, at the same time, to acquire glory 
for himself and a lofty position in the world. 

Describe the efforts which Columbus made to obtain shijps and 
men, and the arguments that he used. 

He went to one after another of the princes and kings of the 
countries in that part of Europe, made known to them his plans, 
and asked their assistance in executing them. He explained to 
them the reasons which led him to believe that there was a short 
way to India across the Atlantic to the west, and that a vast in- 
crease of power and boundless wealth would be the reward of the 
nation that should first discover and open it. He showed them 
that India must be accessible in that direction from the very form 
of the earth ; and the confines of it, he was convinced, must be 
near. The most westerly lands that were known in that direction 
were the Azores and the Cape de Verd Islands ; and on these isl- 
ands great trees, he said, had sometimes drifted in from the west, 
and pieces of carved wood ; and once the bodies of two men, dif- 
ferent in color and visage from any of the inhabitants of the then 
known world, had been washed up on the shores from the sea. 
These things proved not only that there was land in that direction, 
but that it could not be at any great distance. 



324 COLUMBUS. 

For how long a time were these efforts fruitless f 

For ten or twelve long years Columbus persevered in vain and 
fruitless attempts to induce some of the kings or princes of Eu- 
rope to adopt his plans. The difficulties and delays vrhich he en- 
countered were exceedingly wearisome and discouraging. Some- 
times he wasted months in fruitless attempts to obtain even an 
opportunity to explain his plans. When at length he succeeded 
in gaining an audience, the officers appointed to hear him in some 
instances would condemn the plan before they understood it. At 
other times they would make promises, and then wear out Colum- 
bus's patience by endless delays. Sometimes a government would 
give him encouragement in order to prevent his making proposals 
to any other government, while they had really no intention of 
adopting his views themselves. But, notwithstanding all these 
difficulties, Columbus still persevered. 

Why was he so earnest to act under the authonty of some gov- 
ernment ? 

It would not have comported with his views to go out on the 
expedition under a commission from private persons only. He 
wished to be clothed with authority from some responsible and 
powerful government to take possession of and govern the coun- 
tries that he should discover. 

What sovereign at last adopted his plans ? 

At last he succeeded in inducing the Queen of Spain to listen 
to his plans. Her name was Isabella. Her husband was Ferdi- 
nand. Ferdinand was opposed to the plan, but Isabella became 
greatly interested in it, so much so that she said at last that if the 
king would not consent to furnish money from the treasury to pro- 
cure and equip the ships, she would pawn her jewels for the pur- 
pose, and sell her crown of Castile. Castile had been her own 
kingdom before her marriage with Ferdinand, though by her mar- 
riage it was united with his, to form what is the present kingdom 
of Spain. 



COLUMBUS. 



325 



In ichat resi^ect loas Isabella not satisfied with Columhiiis 
proposals f 

Queen Isabella thought, however, that the demands which Co- 
lumbus made for hunself were 
somewhat extravagant and 
unreasonable, and for a long 
time she refused to accede to 
them. What he demanded 
was to be made admiral and 
viceroy over all the lands he 
should discover. 

Why was Isabella unwill- 
ing to make Columbus a vice- 
royf 

The office of viceroy is an 
office of the most exalted char- 
acter, and is seldom conferred 
upon any except the very 
highest nobility. Isabella was 
extremely unwilling to confer it upon Columbus, who, though an 
intelligent and well educated man, still belonged to the middle 
classes of society. He was, however, firm in his refusal to engage 
in the enterprise at all except on that condition, and so Isabella 
finally consented to it. 

Give an account of the sailing of the exp>edition. 
Isabella furnished Columbus with two small vessels, and he 
himself, with the aid of some friends of his, provided a third. Thus 
he had a little fleet of three vessels. These vessels were fitted 
for sea at a small sea-port town in Spain called Palos, and when 
all was ready Columbus set sail. The time when the little squad- 
ron put to sea was about midsummer in the year 1492. He in- 
tended to have sailed earlier in the season, but the embarkation 
was delayed by many unexpected causes. 




QUEEN ISABELLA. 



326 



COLUMBUS. 




What was a caravel f 

The vessels which Columbus was provided with were very 

small. Thej were of 
the kind called cara- 
vels^ used in those days 
for voyages along the 
coast. They had no 
decks, and were fitted 
with oars as well as 
sails. The adjoining 
engraving represents 
the form and fashion 

THli CARAVEL.. n r» . 1 1 

01 one ot these vessels. 
It is astonishing that Columbus could have succeeded in crossing 
the wide Atlantic in them. 

Describe the course which Columhits pursued in crossing the 
ocean, 

Columbus sailed first for the Canary Islands, which lay toward 
the south, off the coast of Africa, about one thousand miles from 
his place of embarkation. He reached these islands in safety, 
and stopped there a little time to rest his sailors and refit his ships. 
It was about a month after he sailed from Spain that he took his 
final departure from the Canaries, and turned the course of his 
ships toward the west over the boundless ocean. The crews of 
his ships were half afraid to go, but his calm and quiet resolution 
reassured them. 

Hoio many miles a day did they go upon an average f What 
cause of alarm did they experience when they were six hundred 
miles from land? 

They went on without any thing serious occurring for about 
six hundred miles. It took thirteen days to accomplish this dis- 
tance. They then found, to their great surprise and alarm, that 
the compass, which was their only guide when the sky was cloudy. 



COLUMBUS. 327 

seemed to fail them. They could see at night, when the north star 
was shining, that it did not point right. It is true it did not devi- 
ate very far, but when it once began to wander, who could tell ho\^ 
far its abeiTations might proceed ? And how awful thej thought . 
would be their condition if, while out on that boundless waste of 
waters, a thousand miles from any shore, their only safe and sun 
reliance in finding their way were to desert them ! 

W/iat took jplace in I'csjpect to this difficulty between Columhub 
and the sailors f 

The sailors were overwhelmed with terror at the danger whicli 
threatened them, and insisted on immediately turning toward home. 
Columbus, however, succeeded in quieting their fears in some meas- 
ure so as still to continue the voyage. He told them that he un- 
derstood the nature of the deviation of the compass, and that it 
could not proceed very far. The needle would always, he said, 
point near enough toward the north to be a very safe guide for 
them. This was, in fact, true, though it is somewhat doubtful how 
far Columbus actually knew it to be true at that time. The men, 
however, were reassured again by the courage, resolution, and en- 
ergy of their commander, and they consented to proceed. 

Moid did the voyage go on after this f 

After this they went on very pleasantly for many days. The 
sea was smooth, the air was balmy, and the wind was fair. Some- 
times they passed great fields of sea-weed floating in the water. 
This was a sign of land ; for sea-weed gTows only on the margin 
of the shore. They saw birds, too, from time to time, wheeling in 
the air around the ship, or sweeping down and dipping the tips of 
their wings in the crests of the waves. Columbus was sure that 
they were approaching some shore. 

Describe the calm, and the effects of it. 

But now the breeze gradually died away, and there fell a calm. 
The calm continued for many days. The ships lay helpless and 
motionless on the sea. They had oars, it is true, but the progress 



328 COLUMBUS. 

which could be made with oars would be too slow to make it worth 
the effort to attempt to use them. The sailors soon became more 
impatient than ever. While the ships were going forward on their 
way, and they themselves were employed in their various duties, 
their mmds were diverted in some measure from their fears, and 
from their longings for home ; but after the calm had continued for 
some days, they became so home-sick and discontented that they 
were ready to break out into mutiny. Columbus had great diffi- 
culty in subduing this rebellious spirit. He, however, did subdue 
it ; and partly by threats, and partly by persuasions and promises, 
he induced them to persevere. 

Give an account of the first sujpj>osed discovery of the land. 

Presently a gentle breeze began to blow again, and at length, 
a few days afterward, just at sunset, a sailor climbed up to a high 
place on the stern to look out, and immediately shouted, in a very 
loud and excited manner, " Land ! Land !" They all hastened to 
the place, and there they saw, as they thought, a line of coast like 
that of an island, extending along the horizon in the southwestern 
part of the sky. The land proved to be nothing but a cloud. 
This was a great disappointment. Still Columbus would not de- 
spair. He insisted on proceeding, and for a fortnight more the 
fleet went on. 

Describe the mutiny that took place among the sailors, and the 
way in which Columbus ajp;peased them.. 

The patience of the sailors was then entirely exhausted. They 
declared that they would go no farther, and as Columbus would 
not yield, they mutinied against him, and were about to throw him 
into the sea, when one evening they caught sight of a coast-fish 
swimming by, and very soon afterward they saw a small brancli 
of a thorn-tree, with berries on it, floating in the water, and a sort 
of staff, with figures carved upon it, which must have been cut by 
the hand of man. Columbus told the sailors that he was confi- 
dent that they would all see the land the next morning. 



COLUMBUS. 32 C 

Give an account ofthefi7ial discovery of the land. 

He himself sat up all night to watch. The vessels sailed on. 
Xear midnight he thought he caught the sight of lights glimmer- 
ing, as if on a shore. He went down, in his joy, into the cabin, 
to call one or two of his officers up to look. They came, and soon 
they saw a torch moving and waving. Columbus was overjoyed. 
He remained on the look-out all night, and in the morning, as soon 
as it was light, the land, in the shape of long and beautifully- wood- 
ed shores, came out fully to view. 

Describe the ajpj)earcmce of the country. 

Of course, the whole company of voyagers on board the several 
ships were greatly excited at the spectacle. The air was filled 
with birds of beautiful plumage, and perfumes of tropical plants and 
trees, wafted from the shores, awakened their senses to an intox- 
ication of delight. The natives, too, were seen gathered in groups 
at all the prominent points along the shore, gazing with amazement 
at the ships, wondering apparently what they could be. 

In what light did Columbus regard the act of landing ? 

Columbus looked upon the act of landing, which was now to take 
place, as a great official ceremony. By the performance of it, he 
was to take possession of the newly-discovered countries in the 
name of the King and Queen of Spain. According to the ideas 
that then prevailed, none b^it Christian nations could have any true 
or valid titles to the territories of the earth, and discovering lands 
occupied only by heathen savages w^as like discovering property 
wholly unappropriated. Thus, by the act which he was now about 
to perform, he was, as he supposed, to establish the right of the 
King of Spain to the sovereignty over America forever. 

In what manner did Columbus land? 

Columbus prepared to land. He dressed himself in a splendid 
military dress of scarlet embroidered with gold. The chief officers 
of the ships, bearing banners in their hands, and presents for the 
natives, accompanied him. He went to the shore in a small boat. 



330 



COLUMBUS. 




LANDING OF COLUMBUS. 



He stepped out upon the sand elated witli the most exalted feel- 
ings of pride and joy, and with a heart full of gratitude to God for 
having brought his hazardous enterprise thus to a successful ter- 
mination. 

What was the first act performed on the shore? 

As soon as all had landed from the boat, they kneeled down and 
chanted a hymn of thanksgiving and praise to God. Then rising, 
Columbus formally made proclamation that he took possession of 



SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. 331 

the land in the name of the King and Queen of Spain. And thur^ 
was the existence of America lirst discovered by the Em'opean 
nations. 

W/iat mistake did Columbus QnaJce in resjpect to the land which 
he had discovered f 

The shore on which Columbus first landed proved to be one of 
the West India islands. He named the country West India be- 
cause he then supposed that it was a part of the same India that 
had been known before to Europeans, and had been reached by 
travelers to the east. It was afterward found that there was a very 
wide ocean intervening between the land that Columbus discovered 
and the Indies of ancient times ; but the new discoveries still re- 
tained the name of West Indies which Columbus had given them. 



CHAPTER III. 

SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. 

What was the object of most of the ex])editions that were fitted 
out for America cfter it was discovered f 

After Columbus had thus found the way to American shores, 
a great many other expeditions were fitted out by different ad- 
venturers, and so, at length, in the course of a hundred years, the 
whole eastern part of the continent was explored. The chief ob- 
ject of most of these expeditions was to procure gold and silver, 
and other such treasures, which were obtained in various ways 
from the natives in the West India islands and Mexico. It was 
not till a great many years had passed away that any permanent 
settlements were made on that part of the coast which now be- 
longs to the United States. 

Where was the first settlement inade, and what difficulty did 
the settlers first experience f 

The first of these permanent settlements was made in Virginia, 



332 SETTLEMENT OF YIRGINIA. 

in 1609, more than a hundred years after America was discovered. 
There were attempts made to establish colonies about twenty 
years before, but they had been defeated in consequence of a fool- 
ish and wicked quarrel which the settlers fell into with the In- 
dians. They thought that it was their wisest policy to treat the 
Indians with great severity, in order to intimidate them ; but they 
made a woeful mistake. The Indians were only exasperated. 
The consequence was, that the colonists were entirely destroyed, 
and the work of settling the country by Europeans was put off for 
twenty years. 

Give an account of the origin of the difficulty which took jplace 
with the Indians. 

The circumstances of the case were these : When the colonists 
first landed from their ships, they were received by the Indians 
very kindly. They were allowed to sail up the river without any 
molestation, and to land and explore the country in all directions. 
They had constant intercourse with the Indians by signs, and all 
things went on very harmoniously, until at length, one day, a sil- 
ver cup was missed from the camp. They thought that some of 
the Indians must have stolen it. A difficulty arose on this ac- 
count, and, in the end, the English, wishing to strike terror into the 
minds of the savages, attacked and destroyed one of their villages 
of wigwams, and burned their fields of corn, as a punishment for 
stealing the cup, and failing to discover and give up the thief. The 
poor Indians fled in dismay. They could not openly resist, for 
they had no weapons with which they could meet a foe provided 
with fire-arms. They, however, secretly resolved on revenge. 

What loas the stratagem which the Indians devised in order 
to revenge themselves ? 

When the vessels which had brought the company of colonists 
over had gone back to England, and the colonists themselves were 
left alone, one of the Indians came to the settlement, and told the 
white men wonderful stories of a place that he could show them, 



SETTLEMENT OP VIRGINIA. 333 

up one of the rivers, where they could find plenty of gold. The 
colonists sent a party of men, with the Indian for a guide, to see 
the place ; but the Indian, instead of showing them a gold mine, 
led them into an ambuscade, where, to their surprise and conster- 
nation, they were suddenly attacked by a shower of arrows issuing 
from a thicket. 

How did the colonists retaliate f 

The colonists foolishly resolved to punish this treachery by 
worse treachery of their own. They sent for one of the principal 
Indian chiefs to come and visit them at their camp. He came 
with a few followers. As soon as he was in their power, the 
whites fell upon and massacred the chief himself and all who were 
with him. Their object in this retaliation was to terrify and over- 
awe the Indians, and make them afraid to perpetrate any future 
acts of hostility against the whites. But the effect was the reverse 
of this. Instead of exciting the fears of the Indians, it aroused 
their anger, and awakened in them a deep spirit of revenge. 
What were the consequences of this quarrel f 
The Indians, being thus incensed beyond measure, began to take 
every means in their power to harass the colonists, and, if possible, 
destroy them. They finally succeeded, and, some time afterward, 
when more ships came from England to bring stores and supplies 
for the colonists, they found nothing on the spot where they had 
been left but bones bleaching in the sun. 

Who loas the jpri7icijpal leader in the attempts to colonize Vir- 
ginia f 

These attempts to colonize Virginia were made through the in- 
fluence and under the general direction of a distinguished English- 
man of wealth and high rank, named Sir Walter Ealeigh. He 
lived in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. Queen Elizabeth was an 
unmarried lady, and it was in honor of her that the part of Amer- 
ica which Ealeigh attempted to settle was called Virginia. She 
was often called the virgin queen. 




334 SETTLEMENT OF VIEGINIA. 

Give an account of RaleigK s jplans and efforts, 
Raleigh made several different attempts to establish colonies 
in the country, and sent at different times 
many ships, with fresh supplies of men and 
stores. The people who went met with a 
great variety of adventures, and endured 
indescribable hardships and sufferings. 
Raleigh himself finally became entirely dis- 
couraged, and determined to give up the 
attempt. 

ONE OF RALEIGH'S SHIPS. Whcn and in what manner was the 

London Company formed ? 

In the mean time, notwithstanding Raleigh's failures, a great 
many people in England had become interested in the plan of set- 
tling America, and, after several years had passed away, and the 
difficulties and hardships of Raleigh's expeditions had been in some 
measure forgotten, two companies of merchants were formed with 
the design of attempting the experiment again. Queen Elizabeth, 
in the mean time, had died, and King James the First succeeded 
her. The companies that were formed were organized under pow- 
ers given them by the king, and they were to be under the general 
control of the king's government. The name of the company that 
intended to make a settlement in Virginia was the London Com- 
pany. It was so named because London merchants chiefly were 
engaged in it. 

What was the history of the first expedition sent out by the 
London Co'injMny? 

The London Company sent their first expedition to Virginia in 
1606. It consisted of three smaU vessels, containing a colony of 
one hundred and five men. They did not know, when they sailed, 
who were to be the rulers of the colony. That was for the king 
to decide. He had written, he said, the names of the persons who 
were to rule on a paper, which he had put in a box and sealed up. 



SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. 



335 



He gave the box to the captain of one of the ships, forbidding him 
to open it until the expedition should arrive in America. What 
reason the king could have had for such a foolish restriction as 
this, one can not imagine, unless it was the pleasure of exercising 
arbitrary power, and showing the colonists how completely sub- 
ject they were to his control. 

Give an account of the adventures of John Smith before he 
came to America. 

Among the other members of this company was one man who 
afterward became greatly celebrated in Virginian history on ac- 
count of his daring and desperate spirit, and the romantic adven- 
tures that he met with in the colony. His name was John Smith. 
He was born in Willougby, in the eastern part of England. From 
his earliest youth he was very wild and reckless. He attempt- 
(^.d to run away when he was a boy in order to go to sea, and 

he sold his school-books 
in order to raise money. 
He was stopped, howev- 
er, before he got away, 
and was bound appren- 
tice to a merchant. He 
yielded to this arrange- 
ment at first, in expec- 
tation that the merchant 
would send him to sea ; 
but, as soon as he found 
that this was out of the 
question, he forsook the 
merchant, and went off 
to the Continent. He 
was, at this time, about 
fifteen years old. He 
roamed about the world after this for ten years, during which time 




PORTRAIT OF SMITH. 



336 SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. 

he met with a series of the most remarkable adventures, and had 
a great many hair-breadth escapes. 

W/iat position did the king intend to give him in the colony f 

At last he came back to England, and when this company was 

formed for going to Virginia, he concluded to join them. His name 

was on the list that the king had nominated for the council, thougli 

none of the colonists knew tliis until they arrived in America. 

What occurred during the voyage f 

On the voyage the colonists quarreled among themselves and 
had a great deal of difficulty. They all took a strong dislike to 
Smith. They accused him of forming a plot to murder the coun- 
cil when their names should be revealed, in order to make himself 
king of the colony. It is not at all improbable, considering his 
character, that he may have given them some reason for entertain- 
ing such suspicions of him. At any rate, they seized him and put 
him in irons, and kept him confined during all the rest of the voy- 
age. When they landed, they seemed, from some cause or other, 
to relent, and they accordingly released him from his confinement, 
but they would not allow him to retain his office as councilor. 

What difficulties did the colonists incur 07i their landing f 

As soon as the company landed, and began to choose a place 
for their settlement, and to commence their preliminary labors, 
they found themselves involved in many difficulties. These dif- 
ficulties were increased by continual disputes and disagreements 
with each other, and the courage and the energy that Smith dis- 
played in these circumstances were so great that he soon made 
himself the real leader of the enterprise. In fact, he was one of 
those men who will lead wherever they are, and whose resolution 
and energy rise higher and higher in proportion to the dangers 
and difficulties that surround them. 

IIow S0071 icere the colonists able to obtain fresh su2Wlies of 
provisions f 

The ships that had brought the colonists went back to England, 



SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. 337 

but they returned again tlie next year with fresh supplies and 
more men. The colonists had suffered dreadfully during the in- 
terval while the ships were gone, but now they were relieved, and 
the settlement was considered as permanently established. 

Describe the plan which Cajptain Smith noio formed^ and the 
arrangements that he made for accomjplishing it. 

Captain Smith, as he was called, now conceived the design of 
making an exploring tour into the interior of the country. He 
was never content unless he was engaged in some daring or dan- 
gerous enterprise, and so, as soon as he and his companions were 
safe from the danger of immediate starvation, he formed this plan, 
which promised enough of difficulty and hazard to suit his adven- 
turous spirit. He took an open boat, and a few companions like 
himself, and set out. He had two friendly Indians with him to 
serve as guides. 

Give an account of the progress of the expedition and of th 
attack of the savages. 

He went on up the river for about fifty miles. Then the water 
became so shallow that he could not go any farther in the boat ; 
so he left the boat, with some men to guard it, and set off himself, 
with his guides and two companions, to continue his journey on 
foot. He went on for some distance safely, but at last his party 
was attacked by a troop of savages that burst upon them sudden- 
ly out of a thicket. The savages had seen the boat, killed the men 
who had been left to guard it, and now had tracked Smith and 
his party to this place. 

Describe the combat of Smith vnth the Indians. 

At the time when they came up. Smith's two companions were 
asleep by their camp-fire. The Indians killed these men instant- 
ly, and then pursued Smith, and when they came up with him, 
they surrounded him and wounded him with an arrow. Smith 
immediately fastened one of his guides to his left arm, and held 
him there as a shield to keep oif the arrows of the Indians, and 

Y 



338 SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. 

then, with his gun, he killed three of the foremost of his assailants 
one after another, retreating all the time as he fired, in hopes of 
making his way back to his canoe. Presently, however, he came 
to a swampy place in the ground, and there sank in the mire so 
that he became entirely helpless, and then the Indians came up 
and made him prisoner. 

IIoio did the savages treat Captain Smith f 

The savages took their prisoner to their wigwams, and began 
to treat him at once with the greatest kindness and consideration. 
They gave him an abundance to eat and drink, and showed him 
all other possible favors. Smith was at first frightened at this. 
He thought that they were going to fat him up and eat him. He 
found out, at last, that their plan was to induce him to become 
their ally and leader, and to aid them in an attempt that they 
were going to make to surprise and destroy the English settle- 
ment. But Smith gave them to understand that it was useless 
for them to think of such a thing. The settlement was strongly 
fortified, he said, and provided with dreadful engines of destruc- 
tion, the nature of which he contrived to explain to them in some 
degree by the help of his musket, so that all attempts on their part 
to destroy it would be vain. 

Give an account of Powhatan^ and of the circumstances under 
which Smith ivas brought before him. 

Smith was carried to one of the villages of a great Indian chief 
named Powhatan, the most powerful ruler in all that part of the 
country. Powhatan was seated under a great spreading pine-tree 
when Smith was brought before him. Two of his daughters, 
young Indian girls, were seated by his side. One of them, Poca- 
hontas, was a child about twelve years old. The other chieftains 
gathered around, and a consultation was held to determine what 
should be done with the prisoner. Powhatan, after hearing the 
case, condemned him to die, and the preparations were made to 
carry the sentence at once into effect. 



SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. 



33D 



How did the case end f 




POCAHONTAS. 



They pinioned his arms, and 
laid him down upon the ground 
with his head upon a stone, 
while the executioner stood by, 
holding a war-club in his hands, 
with which, at a signal from the 
king, he was to beat out his 
brains. But just at this mo- 
ment Pocahontas left her seat, 
and rushed down to the place 
where the poor prisoner was ly- 
ing, and, throwing herself upon 
him, she declared that he should 
not be killed. Her father was 
moved by her entreaties, and 
finally consented to spare the 



prisoner's life, and in the end he let him go free. 

What afterivard became of Smith f 

Smith afterward met with a great many other strange and ro- 
mantic adventures, and performed a great many services of ines- 
timable value to the colony. At last he was blown up by the 
accidental explosion of a bag of gunpowder in a boat in which he 
was coming down the river, and was injured so much that he was 
obliged to return to England. 

What became of Pocahontas ? 

Pocahontas continued a good friend to the English as long as 
she lived. Indeed, when she grew up, she married one of the col- 
onists, and became, in the end, quite a distinguished character in 
history. 

What loere finally the results of the colomj at Jamestown f 

The colony of Jamestown gradually increased after this time, 
and other settlements were made near it. In process of time, 



340 SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 

more colonies, independent of the one in Virginia, were e, tablished, 
both to the north and to the south of it, until at last the whole 
southern coast of the United States was occupied with settle- 
ments from England, and thus the foundations were laid of the 
present Southern States of the American Union. 



CHAPTER IV. 

SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 

By what nation was New York first settled? 

New York was first settled by the Dutch, although the place 
where the city stands was first discovered and explored by an 
English captain. The way in which it happened that the Dutch 
were the first to settle here was this. 

Give an account of the origin of Hiidso'UbS expedition. 

There was in those days, in Holland, a very wealthy and pow- 
erful company of merchants, called the Dutch East India Com- 
pany. This company employed a certain English sea-captain, 
named Hendrick Hudson, to endeavor to find, if possible, an open 
way by sea somewhere through North America to the East Indies. 
Hudson had made two voyages to North America before, and this 
was the reason why they employed him. They thought he would 
be more experienced in those seas. Besides, he himself wished to 
go again, and he applied to the Dutch company to fit out an ex- 
pedition and to give him the command of it. 

What sort of a ship and crew did he have ? 

So they fitted him out a small ship, and gave him a crew of 
strong and fearless sailors, and he set sail. His vessel was very 
small : it was of only ninety tons burden. The ships that navi- 
gate the ocean now are often of two or three thousand tons, and 
sometimes more. It is considered very remarkable that Hudson 
should have ventured on such a voyage in so small a ship. 



SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 341 

G'lve an account of the manner in which the Hudson River 
was discovered. 

Hudson explored the whole coast of North America from New- 
foundland to South Carolina, but he could not find any passage 
through. When he came to the mouth of the Hudson River, he 
thought at first that that might be a strait leading from sea to sea, 
but after he had sailed up a little way he found that it was a river. 
So he called it the Hudson River, after his own name. 

What was the rejjort that Hudson carried hack to Holland., 
and what proposed did he tnake f 

Soon after this he went back to Holland, and told the company 
that he could not find any passage through the land leading to the 
East Indies, but that he had found a very large and noble river, 
with a very favorable situation for a town near the mouth of it, and 
he advised them to establish a colony there. He said that the 
country was full of Indian tribes, who were great hunters and trap- 
pers, and that they were accustomed to catch an immense number 
of wild animals in the woods, the skins of which would make ex- 
cellent furs ; and that, if they would make a settlement at the 
mouth of this river, they could buy almost any quantity of these 
furs from the Indians in exchange for beads, iron nails, knives, 
glass ornaments, and other cheap tilings. 

What resulted from this proposal? 

This plan was adopted. The Dutch company sent out several 
ships, and they established quite a profitable trade for furs witli 
the Indians. They made a small settlement where New York is 
now. They built some log cabins. They soon had quite a town. 
It was not very long before they undertook to build a vessel there, 
and this was probably the beginning of ship-building in America. 

Give an account of the building of the first vessel. 

The reason why the settlers built this vessel was that the one 
which they had at that time was accidentally burned ; so they 
feUed some trees in the forest near, and dragged the timbers and 



342 



SETTLEMENT OP NEW YOEK. 



planks to the shore, and then built a new vessel to take the place 
of the one that was lost. In the engraving below vou see then, 
busily engaged in this work. The skeleton of the v;ssel that was 
burned is seen, too, at a distance, lying on the beach, and half im- 
bedded m the sand. 




BEGINNING OF SHU'-BU ILDIHQ IN NEW YORK. 



SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 343 

Give an account of the intercourse beticeen the colony and the 
Indicms^ and of the treaty made loith them. 

The great business of the Dutch colony of New York for a lono- 
time was trading with the Indians for furs. They accordingly 
did all they could to live on friendly terms with the Indians, and 
by thus securing their good-will, they were enabled to make long 
excursions into the interior of the country without being molested 
by them. There was at this time a very great and powerful con- 
federacy of Indian tribes in what is now the interior of the State of 
New York. The Dutch colonists finally concluded to strengthen 
the bonds of friendship between them and the Indians by making 
a formal treaty with them ; so they sent a delegation of their num- 
ber up the river, to the place where Albany now stands, and invited 
the Indian chiefs to come there and meet them. The Indians came. 
The Dutch received them under a great spreading beech-tree in 
the woods, and there they made a treaty with them. The en- 
graving on the following page gives a representation of the scene. 

What was the Dutch colony origincdly called? 

The Dutch colony was first settled in New York in the year 
1614. The place was, however, not called New York by the 
Dutch, but New Amsterdam ; Amsterdam being the name of one 
of their own chief cities. The Indian name of the place was Man- 
hattan. 

In what manner did this colony first become known to the 
English colonies? 

The English themselves, who had settled in Virginia and in 
other places toward the south, do not seem to have known mucli 
about this Dutch colony for several years. At last an Englisli 
vessel from Virginia came sailing one day into Long Island Sound, 
and, passing down through the channel called East River, it came 
suddenly upon the Dutch town. The commander of the vessel did 
not stop to communicate with the town, but made all haste to get 
out of the harbor and go back to Virginia. 



344 



SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 




^EQOTIATING V. 1 1 H THE INDIANS 



What followed from this discovery f 
^ The commander of tlie vessel reported in Virginia what he had 
discovered, and then the authorities there immediately sent a ves- 
sel to New Amsterdam to warn tlie Dutch settlers awaj. All 
that land, they said, belonged to the King of England, and they 



SETTLEMENT OF NEW YOEK. 345 

had no right to settle there. To this the Dutch replied that they 
found no English there when they came, and therefore they had 
a right to land and take possession ; and now they had no inten- 
tion of being driven away. 

On IV hat ground did the English claim a right to the country 
which the Dutch had settled f 

The ground of the English claim was that they considered them- 
selves as the rightful proprietors of the whole country, on account 
of the discoveries and settlements that they had made in Massachu- 
setts and in Virginia. They considered the country as one, and the 
Dutch, in coming in and planting themselves on an intermediate 
spot, they regarded as intruders. In all these cases the rights of 
the aboriginal inhabitants were never taken into the account at all. 

Describe the farther history of the colony. 

The Virginians not being strong enough to drive them away, 
the Dutch colony remained unmolested. It gradually increased 
in wealth and population, and other settlements were formed at 
various points along the shores of the river and in the interior of 
the country. This state of things continued for about fifty years. 
During all this time the Dutch colony held frequent intercourse 
with the English colonies to the northward and the southward of 
them. Sometimes disputes arose in respect to boundaries, or to 
subjects connected with the traffic with the Indians. These dis- 
putes were, however, generally settled by negotiation in an ami- 
cable manner. 

What expedition teas sent out against the colony iji 1664? 

At last, in the year 1664, which was just about fifty years after 
the colony was first founded, war broke out between England and 
Holland, and the English government sent a small squadron of 
ships and a band of armed men to take possession of New Am- 
sterdam. The expedition sailed up the harbor and landed on the 
shore of Long Island, near what is now the southern part of 
Brooklyn. The engraving on the following page represents the 

P 2 



346 



SETTLEMENT OF NEW YOEK. 




NEW Yuli:>. l.N iuoi 



town as it appeared to the English, viewing it from the Brooklyn 
shore. We see the fort with the tall flag-staff surmounting it, 
and the church with its lofty roofs, and the wind-mill where the 
people ground their corn, and a long row of Dutch-built houses. 
Near, on the shore, are the gallows and the whipping-post, where 
criminals were punished for their crimes, according to the usages 
of those days. 

Describe tvhat took place lohen the English squadron arrived. 
The English commander sent a summons to the governor of 
the fort and town, calling upon him to surrender. The people 
were disposed to yield, for they knew that they had not sufficient 
force to resist the guns of the squadron. The governor, however, 
declared that he never would yield. He tore up the summons 
and threw the pieces on the ground. The people of the town, 
however, were determined not to resist, and they finally compelled 
the governor to surrender. Indeed, if they had not done so, the 
place would have been entirely destroyed by the cannonade from 
the English squadron. 



SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. 347 

What was the result of this C07iquest f 

The English, when they took possession, pulled down the Dutch 
flag from the flag-staff, and put up the English flag in its place. 
They changed the name of the town, too, from New Amsterdam to 
New York. Thus the colonies on the Hudson River, like all the 
other colonies of the country, came under the English power. 



CHAPTEE V. 

SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. 

In what way did the northern and southern colonies differ 
from each other in respect to their oingin ? 

The northern part of the American coast — that is, the part 
which forms the shores of New England, was settled by a very dif- 
ferent class of men from those that planted the colonies in New 
York and Virginia. These Southern colonists were generally wild 
adventurers, who came in hopes of finding gold, or of growing rich 
by trading with the Indians. Some of them, indeed, seemed to 
have no other motive than a love of excitement and change. The 
New England settlers, on the other hand, were sober, sedate, and 
serious-minded men, who came across the ocean to escape from 
their persecutors, and to find a home for themselves where they 
and their children could be free. 

What were the p>olitical opinions of the settlers that came to 
Weio England? 

They were generally Republicans in politics and Puritans in 
religion. They did not believe in being governed by priests and 
kings. There were great dissensions and differences in England 
in those days in respect to these subjects. The kings, though 
they were the very vilest and most ignoble of men, insisted that 
their kingdoms were their own, and that all the people who lived 
in them were their subjects, and were bound to obey them, and to 



348 SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. 

submit to their authority in every thing. The Republicans, on 
the other hand, believed that the people of any country had the 
right to make their own laws, and establish and maintain such a 
government as they pleased. 

What were their 7'eligious opinions f 

The opinions of the Puritans were very decided in respect to re- 
ligion. The Church of England consisted of a close and consoli- 
dated confederation, with the king at the head, and a great body 
of archbishops, bishops, and priests united together under him ; 
and a complicated system of religious rites and ceremonies had 
been ordained, to which the government attempted to compel every 
one to conform. They honestly thought, no doubt, that every one 
ought to conform to this system. The Puritans were opposed to 
it altogether, and all who refused to submit to it the churchmen 
considered as heretics and infidels. 

What was the result of this quarrel between the government 
and the Puritans in England? 

These differences of opinion led, in England, to dreadful quar- 
rels. The people formed themselves into parties, some taking one 
side and some the other. At last the party in favor of the Church 
and of the king gained the day, and the party of Republicans and 
Puritans were discomfited and subdued. They were called Puri- 
tans in derision, because they said they sought a pure and spirit' 
ual religion — one entirely free from what they considered the con- 
taminations of popery. 

Give an account of the attempt made by the Puritans to set- 
tle in Holland. 

At last it happened that about the time that Virginia first be- 
gan to be settled, a company of these men determined to go away 
from England and find a home in some other part of the world, 
where they might hope to live in peace. They thought first of 
Holland, for Holland was at that time itself a republic. They ac- 
cordingly made arrangements for procuring land there, and then 



SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. 349 

all went over together. They remained in Holland for more than 
ten years, but they were not very contented there. They did not 
understand the language, nor were they accustomed to the habits 
and usages of the country. 

W/iatpla7i did theyforin at last in respect to going to America ? 

At last they conceived the idea of breaking up their settlement 
in Holland and removing in a body to America. "In America," 
said they to themselves, " we can do as we please, and live in 
peace. Besides, if we go there first and make a settlement, others 
who think as we do will come from England and join us, and, in 
process of time, we shall become a great and thriving colony." 

What arrangements did they viake for coming to Ainerica? 

So they applied to one of the companies that had been formed 
for settling America, and obtained leave to go. They received 
what is called Si patent,^ which was a paper authorizing them to 
land and settle on a certain portion of the coast. They also made 
an agreement with some merchants of London, by which the mer- 
chants were to furnish them with goods and money to trade with 
the Indians if they should have an opportunity, and they were to 
divide the profits. 

Hoio did it happen that only one vessel came over f 

They came over in only one vessel — the May-Flower — so cel- 
ebrated in history on account of its having brought the first set- 
tlers to New England. The company intended to have had two 
vessels, for one was not large enough to bring them all. They, 
in fact, provided another vessel, and a part of their number em- 
barked on board of it ; but it sprang a leak, and was obliged to 
return, and so the May-Flower came on alone. 

Give an account of the voyage of the May-Flower. 

It happened, somehow or other, that the captain of the May- 
Flower strayed from his way, and instead of landing his company 

* Patent means ofen. Letters patent are letters open — that is, not sealed. This 
is the origin of the term patent as appUed to public documents. 



350 SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. 

on the part of the coast where they had intended to go, he came 
much farther north, and entered Massachusetts Bay. But it was 
now very late in the season — the last of December — so that the 
winter was coming on, and it was beginning to be cold and stormy. 
The expedition, therefore, concluded to land where they were. 

What plan of government did they form before they landed? 

As they were beyond the limits within which they had been au- 
thorized to settle by their patent, they perceived that if they were 
to land there they would be entirely without any government, un- 
less they formed one anew themselves. So they drew up a paper, 
and formed themselves into a " body politic," as they termed it — 
that is, a government and nation, and all the company signed it. 
They did this before they landed. 

What is there remarkable in respect to this compact f 

This act is considered as marking an era in the political history 
of the world. It is the first instance that ever occurred in which 
the foundations of a government were formally laid by a written 
compact entered into by the people themselves who were to com- 
pose the nation to be governed. The number of men who signed 
this compact was forty-one. The number of persons in the ves- 
sel, men, women, and children, was one hundred and one. 

What did the company note do in respect to going ashore ? 

The party met with a great deal of difficulty and delay, as they 
came in sight of the land, before they could finally go on shore. 
So large a number of women and children, of course, could not 
leave the ship until proper provision had been made for them on 
land ; and as none of those who were on board the ship knew any 
thing of the coast, a slow and careful exploration of it was neces- 
sary before any thing could be done. This exploration could not 
be made in the ship itself, for fear of running her upon rocks or 
shoals. They were obliged, therefore, to take a boat for this pur- 
pose, with a small party of brave, strong, and prudent men to 
manage it. There was a kind of boat on board the vessel called 



SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. 351 

a shallop, but it had been damaged on the voyage, and needed re- 
pairs. It was a fortnight before it was ready. 

Give an account of the voyage of the shallop. 

When, at last, the shallop was ready, a small company of men 
took it, and went on a voyage of discovery. The weather was 
cold and stormy, and the party endured a great deal of exposure 
and suifering. They went up into every bay and inlet they could 
find, and landed in several places in search of a good situation to 
build their town. It was necessary that the place should be near 
a harbor, in order to accommodate the ships that would come, 
from time to time, from England, to visit the colony and bring 
supplies. So they looked every where for a harbor, but could not 
find any. At some of the places where they landed they found 
traces of Indians. There were deserted wigwams here and there, 
and once they saw an Indian burying-ground ; but they could not 
find any good place for a town, and at length they gave up the 
search and went back to the ship. 

What effect ivas produced on hoard the ship by the report ivhich 
they brought back f 

The company on board, though they were very tired of the ship, 
and longed to land, were not discouraged. They prayed daily to 
Almighty God to take care of them and guide them, and they felt 
full trust and confidence in his goodness and power. It was this 
trust in God which sustained them in their heaviest trials. 

Give an account of the second voyage of the shallop. 

The next day another party was formed to renew the search. 
It was a cold and windy day ; and when they launched the shallop 
in the surf, and got down into it over the side of the vessel, the 
spray dashed upon them, and froze upon their clothing. They, 
however, persevered. They followed the coast that day for many 
miles. It was the coast of Cape Cod, on the western side. When 
night came, they went on shore and encamped. The ground was 
covered with snow, but they contrived to build a hut to shelter 



352 SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAl^D. 

tliem, and, after praying to God to preserve them through the 
night, they lay down and went to sleep. 

How ivere they attacked by the Indians, and v:hy ? 

The next morning, while they were kneeling down on the cold 
and snowy ground at prayers, they suddenly heard a whoop and 
yell from a band of Indians, and a number of arrows came flying 
about them from the woods. It seems that, some time ago, a ship 
had touched on this part of the coast, and had enticed some In- 
dians on board, and had then sailed away, taking the Indians with 
them. This exasperated the tribe so much that they resolved 
that, if any English ever came again and landed on their shores, 
they would kill them. After shooting their arrows at the party, 
however, and endeavoring to frighten them with their dreadful 
yelling, they did no more, but went away. The boat party then 
embarked on board the shaUop, and continued their voyage. They 
sailed along the coast for forty miles, but could find no harbor. 

Desmhe the effects of the storm which they exjperienced at the 
close^iof the second day. 

At length, near the close of the day, when they were beginning 
to think of turning the boat in toward the shore to encamp for the 
night, a sudden storm of wind, rain, and snow came on. The air 
became so obscured that they could not see. The waves rose and 
dashed against the boat, and finally broke the rudder. They then 
had to steer by the oars alone. They kept all the sails spread, 
so as to go as fast as possible, in order to get to the land before 
the sea should rise so high as to overwhelm them. This was too 
much for the mast in such a high wind, and at length it suddenly 
snapped in three pieces, and all went overboard. The boat was 
now near the shore, and there were roaring breakers ahead and all 
around them. In a word, they were apparently in a situation of 
the most imminent danger. 

How did they escape f 

But they were, in fact, just entering upon the hour of their de- 



SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. 353 

liverance. It is very often so in the dealings of God with his 
people. He leads them through danger and terror to happiness 
and rest. The boatmen saw before them an opening into an inlet, 
and they contrived to guide the shallop in. They found them- 
selves at the entrance of a harbor. They were so worn out and 
exhausted with the labors and dangers of the day, that, as soon 
as they got the boat into sheltered water, they turned and went 
ashore on the nearest land. The land was an island which lay 
just within the mouth of the harbor. The name of the first man 
that stepped on shore was Clark, so they named the island Clark's 
Island. You will see the situation of it on the map upon the next 
page, as well as that of the harbor in which it lay, and the open- 
ing from the sea where the shallop was driven in. 

W/icU tvas their situation when they found themselves on the 
land? 

As soon as the men landed they built a fire. The storm cleared 
away, but the snow was very deep on the ground, and it was dif- 
ficult for them to provide for themselves any tolerable shelter. 
They remained on this island all the next day, employed in mend- 
ing their boat, drying their clothes, cleaning their arms, and in 
other ways repairing the damages of the storm. 

How long did they remain on the island f 

It was Saturday when they landed. They remained on the isl- 
and during the following day too, for they would not, even in such 
an emergency as this, go on with the ordinary duties of life on the 
Sabbath day. They spent the day in rest, in services of public 
worship, and in silent meditation and prayer. 

Give an account of their visit to the main land on Monday 
moiming. 

Early on Monday morning the party launched the shallop again, 
and sailed across the harbor to the main land. They stepped out 
from their boat upon a smaU flat rock which lay on the beach. 
The situation of the island where the party encamped over the 

Z 



354 



SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. 




jrijipof 
Plymouth 

Scale Ss Miles 
jper£7,c7i 




znMoum 






Sabbath, and of the rock where they landed on Monday morning, 
IS shown on the map. This rock has since become very famous 
m history as the Plymouth Eock, the place where the pilgrim fa- 
thers of New England first set their foot upon the main land. 

What followed lohen the party returned to the shvp f 
^ In the mean while, the people on board the ship were waiting pa- 
tiently at their anchorage, fifty miles away, not knowing what had 
become of the shallop and the party of explorers. In due time, 
however, the boat went back, and, to the great joy of the company 
on board the ship, informed them that they had found an excellent 



SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. 355 

harbor. The ship accordingly set sail, and soon entered the port. 
The men landed near the rock, and very soon began to build 
houses for the women and children on the shore. Thus was be- 
gun the first permanent New England colony. 

In ivhat way tvere the colonies in New England aftervMrd 
midtiplied f 

In process of time, new settlers came out in great numbers, and 
new colonies were established all along the New England shores, 
and in some places the settlements extended far into the interior 
of the country. These settlers came in various expeditions and 
at various times, but nearly all of them were animated with the 
same spirit and the same desires in leaving tlieir native land, and 
coming to make for themselves new homes on the cold and stormy 
shores of America. They wished to h^free; and, more than alL 
they wished to found a civil state in which their children might be 
free. They wished to be free not only from political, but also from 
religious domination. 

Give an account of the Walloo?is. 

Most of these Pilgrim emigrants came from England and settled 
in the Northern States, but some went to places farther south. 
There was one company of Protestants that had been driven from 
Flanders into Holland just as the Puritans had gone there from 
England; and tliis party, too, after remaining for some time in 
Amsterdam, determined to emigrate to America, though they went 
to the Hudson, and joined the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam. 
They were called Walloons. They were almost the first party of 
emigrants from Holland that came with their wives and children 
to New Amsterdam with the design to live and die there. Indeed, 
the pilgrims generally were the first who came to America with the 
design of making the new country their permanent home. Those 
who had come before had only intended to remain for a time in 
the New World, till they had made their fortunes by buying furs 
of the Indians, or by the gold and silver which they hoped to find. 



356 



SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. 




LANDING OF THE WALLOONS. 



It is supposed that the Walloons took their name from their living 
originally in a low country near the sea, where the water was 
kept out by the dike or wall. 

What is the present conditmi of the Plymouth Bock, and how 
is it regarded? 

The Plymouth Kock, where the May-Flower company landed, has 
been since greatly venerated by all the people of New England. 
It lay, of course, originally in a low position, and very near the 
water, and, in process of time, wharves were built out opposite to 
it, and the land was filled in, so that now it lies in the middle of 
a street at some distance from the water. A large fragment of it 
has, however, been taken off, and carried up to a public place in 
the town of Plymouth, where it is inclosed within an iron railing 



SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. 



357 




FRAGMENT OF THE PLYMOUTH HOC 



to protect it from injury. It is inscribed with tlie date of the year 
1620, which was the year when the Pilgrims landed upon it. The 
rest of the stone remains in its original place, though that is now 
one of the streets of the town. The engraving represents a view 




THE PLYMOUTH ROCK. 



of the street, with the surface of the stone just showing itself above 
the gTOund. Great numbers of people go every year to visit the 



358 THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. 

spot, and to look upon tins venerable memento of the liardsliips 
and sufferings of their forefathers. 

What became of the Indian pojndatio^i as the settlements ex- 
tended f 

The settlers of New England had difficulties from time to time 
with the Indians, and in the earlier years of the several settlements 
the colonists suffered a great deal from exposure and cold, and 
sometimes from pestilence and famine. The settlements still, 
however, increased and multiplied, and in the course of one hund- 
red years the original Indian population Avas almost entirely dis- 
placed, and the whole country all along the seaboard, and for hund- 
reds of miles into the interior, was occupied almost entirely with 
the farms and villages of white men. 



CHAPTER YI. 

THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. 



IIoio long did the American colonies remain xinder the En- 
glish government f 

The settlements in America remained under the government and 
control of England, from the time when tliey were first formed to 
that in which they established an independent government of their 
own, about one hundred and fifty years. This is called the colo- 
nial period of American history. 

What was the general system of the colonial government f 

There were several diiferent kinds of colonial governments, but 
in all cases the power was exercised in England. Some of the 
settlements were considered as belonging to the king, others to 
companies of merchants, and others to individual proprietors. 
Whoever it was that owned the colonies, he or they, and not the 
people, appointed the governor and regulated the making of the 
laws. At first, indeed, the people of New England were some- 



THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. 



359 



what independent, and chose their own governors ; but as soon as 
they began to be populous and powerful, the English government 
contrived to get the power into their own hands, and governors for 
these colonies were appointed and sent out from Great Britain, as 
well as for the rest. 

W/iat sort of men icere the governors tints sent out ? 
These governors and the people of the colonies did not agree 
very well together. The governors were usually men who enter- 
tained high ideas of their own powers and importance, and as they 
only came to America with a view of making a fortune and then 
going home again, they felt no real sympathy or community of in- 
terest with the permanent residents. They were constantly en- 
deavoring to increase their own power and importance. They 
lived in handsome houses, built expressly for them by the gov- 
ernment. They maintained a great deal of state, as if they were 
kings on a small scale. 

Describe the Province House in Boston. 

The house in Boston which was built and occupied by the 

governors of ]\Iassachusetts 
in colony times yet remains, 
and is still known as the 
Province House. It was 
originally quite out of town, 
but it is now entirely sur- 
rounded and hemmed in by 
other buildings. There is a 
row of brick stores between 
it and the street, so that the 
visitor is obliged to go in 
through an archway to see 
A view of it is given in the above engraving. For the times 
when it was built, it was a large and very splendid mansion, and 
was placed in a retired and rm-al situation. 




THE GOVERNOR'S HOUSE. 



it. 



360 THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. 

What were the means that the governors 2^ossessed for sustain- 
ing their influence and power f 

In tlie contests tliat often arose between the governors and the 
people of the colonies, the governors were by no means left alone. 
Great numbers of persons adhered to then* cause. Some did this 
from hope of receiving offices ; others because they probably 
thought it was better for the colonies that they should be under 
a strong control from the government in England. Then, besides 
the parties in America that adhered to them, they had soldiers un- 
der their command. Some of these soldiers were stationed in forts 
at the mouths of rivers or harbors, and others lived in barracks in 
the towns ; but they were all under the command of the governors 
of the several provinces, and it was partly by means of them that 
the people of the colonies were held in subjection. 

Give an account of the origin and conimencement of the war 
with Canada. 

In process of time, a war broke out between France and En- 
gland, and as Canada had been settled by the French, and was 
now a French colony, the English government concluded to organ- 
ize an army in their colonies in America to attack it. This was 
accordingly done. Armies were raised, the several colonies con- 
tributing their portions of troops, and the English generals, taking 
command of them, led them against the French possessions. 

Why were English generals appointed to take command of 
these colonial troops f 

It was always the usage of the English government to put all 
their colonial troops as much as possible under the command of offi- 
cers sent out from England. One motive for this was to keep the 
troops more completely under subjection to the government, and 
another was that they desired the offices as places for the younger 
sons of the nobility, and the other genteel classes of society at 
home. These young men would have considered themselves de- 
meaned by being engaged in any useful industrial occupation. 



THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. 



361 



What were the difficulties that the troops encountered in these 
campaigns f 

In these campaigns the troops were obliged to make long and 
dreary marches in storms and rain, and through the most wild 




COLONIAL TROOPS 



and unfrequented regions, in which they encountered almost every 
conceivable hardship and difficulty. The chief command in these 
expeditions was always conferred upon officers sent out from En- 
gland, while the colonists were only allowed to fill very subordi- 
nate places. The English officers were, of course, not acquainted 
with the country, or with the peculiar difficulties and dangers of 
marching through forests filled with Indians ; and as they were 
generally too proud to take advice from those who were beneath 
them in rank, they often met with very serious disasters. 
What part did the Indians take in this war f 
The French contrived to engage the Indians, in many cases, to 
fight on their side ; and the Indians, being very skillful in strata- 
gems of all kinds, would lay in ambush till some detachment of 
the army came along, and then would break out upon them so sud- 
denly as to put them all to flight. The soldiers would retreat 



362 



THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. 




THL FKOOI 



from the ground as thej best could, while the wagoners would cut 
the traces of their harness, and then mount the horses and ride 
away, abandoning every thing to the enemy. 

WAat ivas the result of the war f 

Notwithstanding these occasional disasters, the English still 
persevered. They fitted out three grand expeditions to march 
through the woods into Canada, and in the end succeeded in con- 
quering the country. Ever since that time, all the old French col- 
onies that lie to the north of the United States have been subject 
to British power. 

What effect did the war have on the disposition of the English 
government in resjyect to the colonies, and on the dis])osition of 
the colonies f 

One might, perhaps, have supposed that being engaged togeth- 
er in such a war as this, and bringing it to a successful end by 
their joint and common exertions, would have tended to promote 
an excellent understanding between the English government and 
the people of the colonies ; but, instead of this, quite the contrary 
effect was really produced. The government at home, finding 



THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. 363 

how great and powerful tlie colonies were becoming, were more de- 
sirous than ever to have them completely in subjection to their 
own power. The people in America, on the other hand, for pre- 
cisely the same reason, wished to become more and more inde- 
pendent. 

Hoio were the Legislatures cJiosen, and what luere their duties f 
There was in each colony a Legislature chosen by the people. 
These various Legislatures were accustomed to meet in the prin- 
cipal towns, and enact laws for the internal management of the 
colonies, and for raising money by taxes to pay the necessary pub- 
lic expenses. The members, being chosen by the people, of course 
acted for them and in their behalf. The governors and the coun- 
cils, on the other hand, being appointed by the King of England 
or by his ministry at home, represented the English government 
and acted for them. 

How did the Legislatures and governors agree together f 
The Legislatures were all the time endeavoring to increase and 
strengthen their own power, which was the power of the people. 
The governors, in the same way, manoeuvred incessantly to in- 
crease their power, which was that of the king and his govern- 
ment at home. This antagonism was continually breaking out 
into the most serious disputes. 

What measure did the several colonies at last propose as a 
means of increasing their strength^ and what prevented its being 
carried into effect f 

The colonies at one time proposed to form a confederation, by 
the Legislatures, with a view of banding the people of the whole 
country together. This the governors oj)posed. They thought 
any union of that kind would greatly increase the strength of the 
people, and proportionably weaken their own. They proposed 
instead that there should be a combination formed by the govern- 
ors, and that the people themselves should remain distinct. This 
the people would not consent to, and the question gave rise to new 



364 



THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. 



difficulties and disputes, and the result was that no extended or 
general union of the colonies was effected in either form. 

Give an accoimt of the post-office system, and of Doctor 
M'aiiklhi's tour. 

There was one object which the colonies combined to accom- 
plish, and that was the establishment of a post-office system for 
the whole country. The celebrated Benjamin Franklin was one 
of the first post-masters-general. At one time he made an extend- 
ed tour through nearly all the colonies to mature and perfect the 
system. He traveled in a chaise, which he drove himself. His 
daughter Sally accompanied him. He had a spare horse with him. 




THE POST-MASTER-GENERAL. 



His daughter rode sometimes upon the horse, and sometimes in 
the chaise by the side of her father. Traveling in this way, Frank- 
lin was five months in making this tour. Such a tour would be 
accomplished now, by rail-roads and steam-boats, in five days. 

How did the English at last attemjpt to tax the colonies hy 
means of duties f 

As the colonies increased, the disputes between the people and 
the home government in regard to the question how far they were 



THE COLONIAL GOVEENMENT. 365 

to "be allowed to govern themselves, and how far they must sub- 
mit to be governed by the English ministry and the Parliament, 
grew more and more serious. The English government had had 
the power from the beginning of making all laws in respect to com- 
merce, and they wxre accustomed to tax the colonies indirectly by 
requiring them to pay duties on the merchandise imported from 
England. In order to compel them to buy this merchandise, they 
made laws forbidding them to establish any manufactories in 
America. The Americans complained of this, but still they sub- 
mitted. They could not resist the payment of duties very well, 
for the governors had command of the soldiers in the forts by the 
harbors, and they would not allow the ships to come in unless the 
merchant to whom the goods belonged would first pay the duty. 
Then he would add the duty to the price of the goods, and his 
customers were obliged to pay all together. 

Did they wish also to assess direct taxes f 

After a time the English government, not satisfied with what 
was obtained from these duties on the external commerce of the 
country, determined to commence the system of laying internal 
taxes directly upon the people. They knew that the people would 
be strongly disposed to resist this attempt, and that they must < 
therefore begin in a very cautious manner. So they devised an 
exceedingly ingenious plan for the commencement. 

What inge7iioiis plan did they contrive for this piirjpose? 

They made a law that no documents used in business in Amer- 
ica, such as deeds, notes, receipts, and the like, should be of any 
binding force in law unless they were written on papers for which 
a tax had been paid in England. In order to carry the law into 
effect, the government had paper prepared suitable for writing such 
documents upon, and a stamp put upon every sheet. These 
stamps were of different kinds, according to the kind of document 
they were intended for. There was so much to be paid for a pa- 
per to write a deed upon, so much for a receipt, and so with all 



^^^ THE COLONIAL GOyErcX:.IEXT. 

the other different kinds. These were to be sent out to America 
and offered for sale. Of course, whoever bought them must paj 
the tax as well as the price of the paper ; and if people did not buy 
them, but wrote their notes, for example, on common paper, the 
notes would be of no force. The men who signed them mio-ht pay 
them or not, as they pleased. The judges in the courts could not 
compel them to pay unless the note was written on stamped paper. 
W/uj icere the America7is not icilling to pay this tax? 

The amount of the tax was not very great. It would be, per- 
haps, only a few cents for a receipt for lifty dollars. The En- 
glish government thought that the merchants would prefer to pay 
this small sum rather than put to risk so large a one. But the 
Americans were determined to do no such thing. They were re- 
solved that the government should not be allowed to heghi to tax 
them, for, if they were once permitted to begin, no one could tell 
when and where they would end. 

What measures did they adopt to resist the ptciymeiit of them f 

They had meetings, and passed resolutions binding themselves 
not to use the stamped paper when it came, no matter how much 
trouble and inconvenience it might occasion them. These resolves 
they canied fully into effect. The stamped papers came, but no- 
body would buy them. 

What teas the result of the contest? 

The affair led to a great deal of difficulty, and produced an in- 
tense excitement throughout the country ; but, finally, the govern- 
ment, finding that the Americans were fiilly determined not to 
yield, repealed the law. They, however, when they repealed it, 
passed a vote asserting that they had a perfect right to tax the 
colonies in any way they thought fit, and they intended to tax 
them on some future occasion. 

Describe the second attempt that the English government made 
to tax the colonies^ and how they reasoned on the subject. 

It was not long before the occasion came. The English gov- 



THE COU?NIAL GOTEPw>rME>-T. 367 

emment resolved to try tlie experiment again. They made a law 
lavins: duties on several articles which it was customary to im- 
port tirom England into America in those days. They chose the 
articles which they supposed it would be most difficult for the 
Americans to do without. The articles were glass, paper, colors 
to be used in paint, and tea. *• They managed to get along with- 
out tLsins: the stamped paper," thought the government, " but they 
will have to pay these taxes, or else go without any glass or paint 
for their houses, or any paper to write or print upon, and the 
women can have no tea.*' 

W7iat measures did they adopt to enforce the laic, and ichat 
icas the effect of them ? 

"When the law was passed, in order to intimidate the Americans 
and make sure of enforcing it, they sent some ships of war to Bos- 
ton, where the spirit of resistance seemed to be the strongest. 
They landed a large number of troops firom these ships and gar- 
risoned the forts with them. These measures, however, instead 
of intimidating the Bostonians, only exasperated them, and made 
them still more determined that they wotdd not submit. 

What measures did thepeopU of the colonies adopt to oppose 
fJiem f 

The Massachusetts Legislature sent remonstrances to En2:land, 
expressing in the strongest terms their opposition to these laws, 
and public meetings were held in all parts of the country, in which 
resolutions were passed taking the same ground. In these meet- 
ings the people resolved that they would not use any of the ar- 
ticles that were taxed in this way, and denounced every merchant 
who should import them, and olfer them for sale, as an enemy to 
his country. 

yrhat ic<is done in respect to the merchants icho icould import 
the t'xrced goods ? 

Still, some merchants would persist in importing them, and the 
people were greatly incensed against them for so doing. The very 



368 THE COLONIAL GOVEENMENT. 

boys caught the general spirit, and they used to make effigies of 
these merchants, and after carrying them about the town, and hold- 
ing them up to the scorn and derision of the crowd, would burn 
them in the streets. 

Give an account of the shooting of the hoy in Boston, 

At one time the boys became involved in an affray with one of 
the men who was thus obnoxious to them, and followed him to 
his house. The man went in, and thus escaped out of their hands. 
The boys then began to throw snowballs and pieces of ice at the 
house. The man became exasperated with them, and, thinking 
that he Iiad a right to protect his dwelling from such an attack, 
brought a gun to the window and fired, and killed one of the boys. 

^Yhat effect did this occuTTence produce f 

This occurrence produced an intense excitement throughout the 
town. The faneral of the boy was attended by an immense con- 
course of people. For some days nothing else was talked of, and 
every where were heard the most violent denunciations and threats 
of vengeance. 

Give an account of the soldiers shooting into the crowd in State 
Street, Boston, 

After this, disputes and collisions between the people on the one 
hand, and the soldiers, and the government officers, and all who 
were supposed to favor the British side, on the other, grew more 
and more frequent and alarming. When blood begins to be shed 
in such contentions, the effect is always to exasperate the parties 
more and more against each other, instead of intimidating them. 
At length, on one occasion, a very serious collision took place in 
Boston between the troops and the citizens, which increased the 
general excitement to a higher degree than ever. One night — it 
was in the evening of the fifth of March, 17 70 — some young men 
threw snowballs at a sentinel who was on guard at the Custom- 
house. He probably repelled the assault somewhat rudely, and 
this led to a distiirbance. Soon a crowd collected, and there were 



THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. 



369 



indications ol a riot. The captain of the guard, hearing of this 
difficulty, sent a sergeant and six men to the spot. He thought 
the appearance of the soldiers would intimidate the crowd and drive 
them away, but it seemed only to increase their excitement and 
exasperation. At last the command was given to fire. The sol- 
diers obeyed. Three of the crowd were killed on the spot, and 
two more were mortally wounded. This occurrence produced a 
prodigious sensation, and aroused the people almost to phrensy. 
They called it a massacre. 




THE BOSTON MASSACRE. 



What course did the governors at last recommend to the En- 
glish ministers, and what did the mi7iisters decide to do f 

At length, the governors of the provinces, seeing how great the 
excitement was becoming, wrote to the ministers in England that 
if they persisted in enforcing the law which they had passed, the 
colonists would soon come to open rebellion, and recommended to 
them to give way a little, if it was only for a time. The govern- 
ment, after taking the case into full consideration, finally decided 

A A 



370 



THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. 



that they would take off all the taxes except the one on tea. 
That, thej insisted, must stand. 

Give an account of the controversy about the tea in Boston. 

The Bostonians were determined that it should not stand. They 
all resolved that they would not buy any of the tea when it should 
come. More than this, as soon as the ship which brought the first 
cargo of tea arrived, a company of men went on board late in the 
evening, and took possession of the ship, hoisted up the tea-chests 
out of the hold, and threw it all over into the water. There were 




THROWING THE TEA OVERBOARD. 



two hundred and forty chests and one hundred half-chests that 
were thus destroyed. There were about thirty men in the party. 
They were disguised as Indians. We see some of them in the 
boat alongside the ship. They disguised themselves in this way 
in order that it might not be known who they were by the people 
on board the ship. 



THE AMEEICAN CONGRESS. 371 

WAai measures did the English governinent now adojpt to 
punish the Bostonians f 

The English government were greatly enraged at this transac- 
tion. They immediately passed a law to shut up the port of Bos- 
ton, so that no ships could pass either in or out. This destroyed, 
for a time, the commerce of the town, and produced great distress 
and suffering. 

What effect did this severity produce on the Bostonians, and 
on the people of the other colonies f 

This measure only strengthened the determination of the Bos- 
tonians not to submit to these encroachments of a distant govern- 
ment, which, not contented with the large share of power which it 
had always hitherto enjoyed over the colonies, now grasped at the 
whole. Indeed, many of the leaders among the Americans began 
to ask seriously whether the time had not come when they ought 
to throw off the foreign dominion entirely, and thenceforth man- 
age their own affairs in their own way, as an independent nation. 
All the other colonies sympathized strongly with the Massachu- 
setts colony and the Bostonians, and were prepared to join them 
in taking any stand which they might finally decide upon. 



CHAPTER VII. 

THE AMEEICAN CONGRESS. 

What means did the colonies contrive to enable them to keej) 
up a communication with each other ? 

Although the Legislatures of the different colonies had been 
prevented from organizing any thing like a regular confederation, 
still they kept up a constant communication with each other by 
means of committees of correspondence. Through these commit- 
tees the people of Boston and of Massachusetts received assurances 
of sympathy and promises of aid from almost all the other colonies. 



372 THE AMERICAN CONGRESS. 

What was done hy the Legislature of Virginia ? 

Virginia came nobly to her aid. The Legislature appointed a 
day of fasting and prayer in consideration of " the hostile invasion," 
as they expressed it, "of the city of Boston, in our sister colony 
of Massachusetts," thus showing that they intended to make com- 
mon cause with her. They called upon the people to pray devout- 
ly to God to make them all of one heart and one mind, firmly to 
oppose by all just and proper means every invasion of American 
rights. 

What was the effect of this action of Virginia on the other col- 
onies and on the British government ? 

This decided stand by the Virginia Legislature had great influ- 
ence throughout the country. Virginia was altogether the leading 
colony south of New England. The other Southern colonies took 
substantially the same ground. The British government saw that 
the whole country was likely to be united against them, and they 
began in earnest to prepare for war. They ordered more ships of 
war to Boston, and strengthened the forts there, and sent out re-en- 
forcements of soldiers. The Legislatures of the colonies, on the 
other hand, began to pass acts for raising and equipping troops in 
America. 

What measures were adopted for forming a confederation? 

They also began to take measures for having a confederation of 
some kind formed to unite the several colonies together. They 
appointed delegates, a certain number from each colony, who were 
to meet at Philadelphia, which was a convenient place, being in a 
central situation between the Northern and Southern colonies. 

How was the Congress constituted^ and what could it do f 

These delegates, at their meeting in Philadelphia, were to form 
a body called a Congress. This Congress would have, it is true, 
no absolute power, but they could consult in respect to the meas- 
ures best for the colonies to pursue, and recommend them for adop- 
tion, and thus enable the colonies to act in concert. 



THE AMERICAN CONGRESS. 373 

How did the governor of Massachusetts attem/pt to prevent the 
election of delegates to the Congress f 

The governors of the colonies did all they could to prevent the 
Legislatures from adopting these measures. When the governor of 
Massachusetts heard that the Legislature of that colony were going 
to choose delegates to the Congress, he sent in great haste to dis- 
solve the assembly. This he had a legal right to do, for it had 
been provided in the Constitution of the colony that the governor, 
though he could not control the action of the Legislature while it 
was in session, might adjourn or dissolve it at his pleasure, and 
thus put an end to its action at any time. 

How did his plan succeed? 

The Legislature learned in some way that the governor's mes- 
senger was coming to dissolve the body just as they were proceed- 
ing to choose delegates to the Congress ; so they locked the doors, 
and would not let any body in, and then went on choosing the 
delegates. The messenger knocked long at the door, but nobody 
opened it ; so he read the proclamation dissolving the assembly on 
the stairs, and then went away. When the assembly had finish- 
ed the business of choosing the delegates to Congress, they opened 
the doors, and then they heard that the proclamation had been 
read to dissolve them ; so they closed the session, and the mem- 
bers went to their several homes, having accomplished all that 
they desired. 

Why could not the Legislature he punished for this? 

In this proceeding they did nothing for which any of them could 
be legally punished ; for although there was a law requiring them 
to leave off doing business and separate as soon as they should re- 
ceive a message from the governor dissolving the meeting, still they 
were not obhged to separate before they actually received the mes- 
sage, and in the mean time there was no law against their locking 
their doors whenever they pleased. Thus they accomplished their 
object of choosing the delegates without any violation of law. 



374 



THE AMERICAN CONGEESS. 



WAat was the character and influence of the Congress when 
it was convened f 

Soon after this the delegates met at Philadelphia, and organized 
themselves into a permanent body, which was called the American 
Congress. The establishment of this Congress was a very im- 
portant event. It very soon acquired great influence, and, in the 
end, took the general direction of affairs, and with the co-operation 
and help of the people of the colonies, carried the revolution through 
to a successful end. The building in Philadelphia in which the 
Congress held its meetings is represented in the engraving. It is 
stiU standing, and is an object of great veneration. It is known 




INDEPENDENCE HALL. 



COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAR. 375 

by the name of Independence Hall, for it was in that building that 
the Declaration of Independence was made. 

What course did of airs take after the Congress assembled f 

After the Congress assembled there was no longer any reason- 
able hope of settling the difficulty amicably, and so both sides be- 
gan to prepare vigorously for war. The people of the different col- 
onies began to make collections of arms and ammunition, and to en- 
roll soldiers. In some places they built forts, or seized those that 
had before been in the hands of the governors. The Congress, too, 
in their sessions at Philadelphia, adopted a great many important 
measures. 

What were some of the measures that Congress adopted ? 

They drew up a declaration of the rights of the people of Amer- 
ica, and published it to the world. They recommended to the peo- 
ple of the colonies to resolve not to purchase any English goods 
whatever till the oppressive laws which were made against them 
should be repealed. They expressed their determination to resist 
these laws to the last extremity. They sent memorials, too, to 
the West India Islands and to Canada, to invite the people of those 
colonies to join the confederacy. After adopting this and other 
preliminary measures, they adjourned, with the intention of meet- 
ing again when the results of this action should be known. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAE. 

When did the war break out f 

The transactions described in the last chapter occurred in the 
fall of 1774, and, during the whole of the winter following, the 
excitement of the country increased, and the preparations on both 
sides for the coming contest went on. At length, in the month 
of April, 1775, the crisis arrived. 



376 COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAR. 

WAo was General Gage^ and what was the object of the expe- 
dition which was sent to Concord? 

The first battle was fought at Lexington, a town about twenty 
miles from Boston, on the way to Concord. Concord was quite 
a considerable town even in those early days, and the people had 
collected there a large supply of arms and ammunition, which they 
intended to use against the British in case war should break out. 
General Gage was the commander of the government troops in 
Boston at that time, and he determined to go out to Concord and 
seize these stores. 

Give an account of the plan of the expedition^ and the progress 
of it as far as to Lexington, 

He organized a secret expedition of eight hundred men, and in 
the night sent them in boats across the water which separates the 
peninsula of Boston from the main land. There are many bridges 
there now, but there were none then. The troops marched all 
night. The officers had taken every possible precaution to keep 
the expedition profoundly secret, in order that they might surprise 
the keepers of the stores at Concord, and so seize and destroy the 
ammunition without any conflict. They supposed that they had 
succeeded in this, and confidently expected to accomplish the ob- 
ject of their enterprise in the morning without any serious resist- 
ance ; when all at once, on entering the town of Lexington, they 
found a band of armed men drawn up across the road, evidently 
prepared to resist them. 

How did it happ)en that there was a force ready at Lexington 
to oppose the expedition f 

The explanation of this was, that some Americans, who had seen 
the troops soon after they landed firom the boats and had com- 
menced their march, took measures immediately for spreading the 
alarm. They sent horsemen from town to town, to ring the bells 
and call out the people. The people rose from their beds, dressed 
and armed themselves in haste, and went ofi" in small bands, as 



COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAR. 377 

they chanced to come together, toward the road which they sup- 
posed the troops would take in going to Concord. The force which 
the British detachment encountered at Lexington was the first of 
these bands that they met. 

What took place at Lexington f 

There were about seventy of the Americans ; but seventy men, 
of course, could not hope successfully to resist eight hundred. 
They fought a short time, until quite a number of them were kill- 
ed, and then retreated. 

How did the expedition end? 

The British detachment then went on. They found another 
band of Americans at Concord, and another brief contest took place 
there. They succeeded, however, in taking and destroying the 
stores, and then they made good their retreat to Boston, though 
they were pursued and harassed all the way, and nearly two hund- 
red of them were killed or wounded. 

What was the effect which this battle produced on the country ? 

The news of this encounter spread like wildfire throughout the 
country, and aroused the people to the highest pitch of excitement. 
Every body was at once ready for war. 

Describe what took place in respect to Boston. 

Great numbers of men enlisted as volunteers, and marched to- 
ward Boston. In a short time, so large a force was thus assem- 
bled that the town was hemmed in on every side, and the British 
troops were shut up in it as if they were besieged. There were 
then no bridges leading from Boston to the main land. The only 
access, except by boats, was over the Neck. The British took 
possession of the Neck and fortified it, so as to prevent the Amer- 
icans from coming in. Of course, almost all communication be- 
tween the town and the country was cut off, and the town itself 
was filled with excitement and terror, the soldiery taking complete 
possession of it, and treating the inhabitants, as usual in such ca- 
ses, with great severity. 



378 COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAE. 

Who was the British commander in Boston, and what ;plans 
did he now form ? 

The name of the ofEcer who commanded the British troops, it 
has already been stated, was General Gage. His plan was to for- 
tify himself in Boston until more ships and more troops should ar- 
rive from England, and then to march out into the country, and 
attack and disperse the American armies that had assembled there. 
The plan of the Americans, on the other hand, was to increase 
and concentrate their troops, and, as soon as they were strong 
enough, attack the British in Boston and drive them away. 

What ivas the residt in the end f 

The Americans succeeded, though not immediately. The Brit- 
ish remained in Boston nearly a year before they could be expelled. 
The first attempt that the Americans made to expel them failed, 
and quite a long time elapsed afterward before they were ready 
to make another. 

Give an account of the situation of the hills cd)Out Boston. 

The attempt that failed happened thus : Boston is situated on 
a peninsula that lies in the middle of a bay. There are, however, 
on the north, and also on the south, pretty high hills that overlook 
this bay. The hills on the north are in Charlestown. The prin- 
cipal one is Bunker Hill. Those on the south are in Dorchester, 
and are called Dorchester Heights. 

o 

What was the first jplan formed hy the A?nericans for expel- 
ling the British troops from Boston? 

The first plan of the Americans to drive the British out of Bos- 
ton was to go secretly in the night to Bunker Hill, and build what 
is called a redoubt there. A redoubt is a broad and high bank of 
earth, with openings in it here and there for the mouths of cannon. 
The Americans thought that if they could get the redoubt so far 
finished in one night that it would shelter the men behind it, the 
next day, from the cannons on board the ships in the harbor and 
in the forts of the town, they could then bring their own cannons 



COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAR. 379 

to it, and fire upon the town or the ships themselves, and so drive 
the British troops away. 

Give an account of the proceedings of the Americans in build- 
ing the redoubt. 

The party that were sent to make the redoubt assembled in 
Cambridge in the evening. There were quite a number of troops, 
and two hundred workmen from Concord. The workmen carried 
pickaxes and shovels with them, and provisions to last them twen- 
ty-four hours. They set out as soon as it was dark. Two men 
led the way with dark lanterns. It was a very warm summer's 
night. The men were charged to march along as silently as pos- 
sible, and not to speak a word. As soon as they reached the 
ground, the officers marked out the lines for the redoubt, while the 
men laid down their packs, and stacked their arms, and got their 
tools ready. As soon as the lines were drawn they began to dig. 
They could see the lights in Boston, at a short distance from them, 
p.nd also on board the men-of-war in the harbor. They were 
afraid to make the least noise at their work, for fear of alarming 
the sentinels on board the ships, in which case they would soon 
have seen the flashes of the guns from the sides of them lighting 
up the night, each one followed by a heavy shot or shell, which 
would come tearing its way into their intrenchments. 

JIow were they discovered^ and what followed f 

They succeeded in keeping secret what they were doing until the 
morning, and then, as soon as it was light, they were of course dis- 
covered. The ships in the harbor and the forts in the town imme- 
diately opened fire upon them ; but the embankment was now com- 
pleted, and it protected them so well, that the shots did no harm. 

Describe the state of things among the jpeojple of Boston the 
next morning. 

All the people of Boston were thrown into the greatest state of 
excitement on hearing this cannonading. They were waked up 
by it in the morning. They knew by the sound of the guns that 



380 COMMENCESIENT OF THE WAE. 

they were shotted, and they were sure, therefore, that something 
very serious had occurred. They went up to the tops of the 
houses to look. There they could see the new redoubt that had 
sprung up so mysteriously in the night on Bunker HiU, and they 
could see the balls flying toward it through the air from the can- 
non of the ships and forts. Some were terrified at the spectacle ; 
others were pleased to find that their countrymen had gained so 
strong a position. The whole town was filled with the wildest 
excitement. All this time the men on Bunker Hill went on stead- 
ily with their work, notwithstanding the firing, and about noon 
they finished it. 

What measures did General Gage adopt for dispossessing the 
Americans.) and what was the residt ? 

General Gage determined immediately that he must dislodge 
the Americans from their redoubt at once, at aU hazards. " K we 
do not drive them away from that hill," said he to himself, "they 
will very soon drive us away from Boston." So he ordered out 
a detachment of soldiers, and made ready to cross the water to 
Charlestown. The detachment consisted of over two thousand men. 
There were twenty-eight barges and boats prepared to take them 
over. They landed on the shore at some distance fi'om the hill, 
and waited there a short time for another body of troops fi'om the 
ships. When aU were ready, they marched up the hiU and attack- 
ed the redoubt. There was a long and obstinate conflict, but at 
last the Americans were beaten and compelled to retreat. 

What is there specially remarkable in respect to the battle of 
Bunker mil ? 

Notwithstanding that the, British really, in the end, gained the 
day, this battle of Bunker Hill has always been regarded in his- 
tory as an American triumph, and the people of this country have 
gloried in it as one of the greatest achievements of the Kevolution. 
There were only one thousand five hundred Americans engaged, 
while of the English there were four thousand. The Americans 



COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAE. 



381 



were aided by their redoubt, but then the British, on the other 
hand, were supported by the firing from a fort in Boston, and by 
shot and shells from the ships of war ; and yet twice did the Amer- 
icans drive back the assailants down the hill. It was not till the 
third attack that they succeeded, and then because the American 
supplies of ammunition gave out, so that they could no longer 
continue their fire. 

What was the effect of the battle on the country f 
I This, it is true, was only a limited and partial success, but it 
animated the soldiers in all the American camps in a won- 
^ derfiil manner. The news of the battle spread rapidly all 
^=s= over the land, and it exerted a very powerful influence in 
arousing the people in every quarter of the coun- 
try, and advancing the cause of the Revolution. 
Thus, on the whole, considering the results which 
followed, the day was a triumphant one for the 
American cause, and a very lofty and imposing 
monument of granite has been erected to com- 
memorate the spot which was the scene of this 
_ battle. 

What were the arrangements which Con- 

gi'ess made for carrying on the war f 

As soon as Congress met, they adopted 

^ ^^lore systematic and decisive measures than 

ever for carrying on the warfare. 

They made 

arrange- 





^- 



%^ 




MONUME.'^T O.N BU.NKEK HILL. 



382 



COMMENCEMENT OP THE WAR. 



tion of a large army. They appointed General Washing- -^^ 
ton commander-in-chief of it. He proceeded to Cam- ^ ^-" 
bridge and took the command. He established his head- ^ V 
quarters at a large house four or five miles from Boston. ~ 
This house is still standing, and is considered one of 
the most interesting relics of Kevolutionary times. 

Describe the situation that Washiiigtoii ^^ 
was in at Cambridge, and the ditties 
which devolved %ipon him. 

Large bodies -- "^^ 

of volunteers 
hastened to 
Cambridge ,.'f|^* 
to join the ' -^'- 
standard 
of Wash 
ington, 
and by 
their 
means he 

was enaDieci Washington's head-quartees at Cambridge. 

to occupy all 

the country around Boston, so that the British forces were com- 
pletely shut in, as if they were besieged. Washington was con- 
stantly engaged all summer in organizing his army, providing them 
with food, clothmg, and ammunition, and in teaching the soldiers 
their duty. They were, of course, very destitute in respect to all 
the usual requisites for war, as they were generally young farmers 
or mechanics, just from the work-shop or the field, and were arm- 
ed with such chance weapons as came most readily to hand. 

Why could not Washington at once ccttach the British ? 

With the means at his command he could not attack the British 
in Boston with any hope of success. He had very little artillery ; 




COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAR. 



383 



lie had no boats in which to convey his troops to the town across 
the water, and the only approach by land was fortified in such a 
manner as to make it impossible to force the lines without* cannon. 

How was it that at last a way seemed to he opened to him f 

The summer passed away and the winter came. The frost 
bridged the waters of the bay, and seemed to open a passage for 
the troops, and Washington seriously contemplated making an at- 
tack upon the town over the ice. On mature deliberation, this 
plan was found too doubtful of success, and it was abandoned. 

Give an account of the second serious jplan formed for dis- 
lodging the British^ and of the work of the men in executing it. 

Early in the spring, however, the second great effort was made 
by the Americans to dislodge the British from Boston, and it suc- 
ceeded triumphantly. It was a repetition of the attempted ma- 
noeuvre of Bunker Hill. One night in March, a body of troops 
were sent up to the heights of Dorchester and set to work, throw- 




^*g.:^^W^ '-M 




VIEW OF BOSTON FROM DORCHESTER HEIGHTS. 



384 COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAR. 

ing up intrenchments there just as they had done on Bunker Hill. 
But this undertaking was managed on a much more extensive 
scale than the other. Six times as many workmen were employed 
in digging the trench and throwing up the embankment as were 
sent to Bunker Hill, and there was a large body of troops detached 
to accompany and protect them. The hill was higher too, and so 
was much more safe from an attack. The men worked hard all 
night, and by morning the work was wellnigh completed. 

Describe what took place the next morning in Boston, 

As soon as it was light, the sentinels on board the men-of-war 
were amazed at seeing a strong fortress, that had grown up in the 
night, frowning upon them from a hill so near as to place them in 
imminent danger. The commander of the ships sent word to Lord 
Howe, who was now the general-in-chief on shore, that unless he 
dislodged those men from their post on the Heights, he should be 
obliged to leave the harbor immediately with all his ships, "for 
the Americans could fire," he said, " directly down upon him as 
, soon as they should get their guns in position." Lord Howe im- 
mediately fitted out an expedition to go in boats and storm the 
redoubts, as the troops had done before at Bunker Hill. 

What was the result of the exjyedition sent to dislodge the 
Americans f 

The men embarked and set sail, and every body expected a ter- 
rible battle ; but a storm came on suddenly, and threw them all 
into confusion. Some were upset, some driven on the shore, and 
the whole fleet was so scattered and broken up, that before they 
could be collected again, and repaired, and made ready for another 
attempt, the Americans had completed their works, and made them 
so strong that the British were afraid to attack them. 

Wliat jprojyosal did General Hoive now make to General 
Washington f 

General Howe sent word to General Washington that if he 
would allow them to embark on board their ships in peace, they 



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 385 

would all go away. " But if you fire upon us from your intrench- 
inents on the Heights," said he, "while we are going on board, 
then we will burn the town." 

What was the result ? 

General Washington wished to save the town, and so he made 
an agreement with Lord Howe, that if he would go away and leave 
every thing as it was, they would allow him to go in peace. The 
British, accordingly, embarked in the ships and sailed out of the 
harbor. For some time nobody knew w^iere they were going. 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 

What were the designs and intentions of the colonists at the 
co'ininencement of the war f 

The Declaration of Independence Avas made on the 4tli of July, 
1776. This was not until more than a year after the war broke 
out. During all this time, the people of the colonies, thougli de 
termined that they would not submit to being taxed by a govern- 
ment three thousand miles away, had yet not resolved to separate 
entirely from the mother country. They professed to be loyal and 
obedient in spirit still, as subjects of the English king, but they 
insisted on enjoying the same rights and privileges that were 
claimed and enjoyed by all other British subjects. 

What was really the claim of the colonists i7i respect to tax- 
ation f 

It must be distinctly borne in mind, in order to understand the 
merits of this dispute, that the colonists did not by any means 
claim that they ought not to be taxed at all, but only that, like 
the people of England themselves, they should have the control 
of the subject of taxation in their own Legislatures. They were 
not willing to be taxed by the English Legislature. 

E 



386 THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 

How did they reason on the subject f 

The Parliament was the Legislature of the people of England. 
Without the act of Parliament, neither the king nor the govern- 
ment could lay any tax whatever on the people at home. Now 
the colonies had their Legislatures too, and the people of the col- 
onies maintained that it was those Legislatures, and not the Leg- 
islature of the people at home, that should control the subject of 
taxation in America. There was no justice or right whatever that 
the Leo'islature of one portion of the king's dominions should reg- 
ulate the taxes for the people of another portion. It would be al- 
most as reasonable, they maintained, to expect that tlie Legislatures 
of America should regulate the taxation of the people of England, 
as that the Legislature of England should do it for the people of 
America. Thus all that the Americans claimed was that, while 
they were willing to remain loyal and faithful subjects of the Brit- 
ish king, they should be protected in the enjoyment of the same 
rights and privileges in their own country that the people of En- 
gland enjoyed in theirs. 

What change tooJc place in the views of the colonists as the 
loar went on ? 

As the war went on, however, during the year after it first broke 
out, the Americans became gradually more and more alienated from 
the mother country, and thus the breach grew wider and wider. 
All attempts to compromise and settle the dispute failed. The 
English government would make no terms with the Americans 
short of exacting from them a complete and absolute surrender to 
their authority. 

To what conclusion did the leaders finally come f 

At length many leading Americans began to think that the time 
was come when it would be best for the colonists to renounce their 
allegiance to England altogether. " Let us proclaim our independ- 
ence," said they, "and take our stand boldly among the nations 
of the earth," 



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 387 

What were at first the views of the 7nass of the people on this 
subject f 

This proposal was received at first, by many persons, with great 
alarm. There was still remaining, too, in the minds of a large por- 
tion of the people, a lingering attachment to the mother country. 
'* Besides," said they, "we can not hope to contend successfully 
against so great a power. So long as our resistance is confined to 
opposing a single unjust and oppressive law, England will not make 
any very great efforts to subdue us, and will finally give up the 
contest and grant us our rights ; but if we go to so great an ex- 
treme as wholly to renounce the authority of the mother country, 
and attempt to make ourselves independent altogether, then the 
spirit of the government will be thoroughly aroused, and they will 
come upon us with all the strength and all the resources of the 
empire, rather than yield." 

JIoic did the leaders reply to these arguments f 

To this, those who were in favor of independence replied, that 
doubtless the English government would make every possible ef- 
fort to reconquer the colonies and bring them back, if they should 
attempt to break entirely away from the mother country ; and they 
admitted that the contest would be very unequal between the 
mighty British empire, with its great and powerful ships of war. 
and its immense armies of well-equipped and well-trained troops 
on the one hand, and, on the other, the thinly-peopled and scatter- 
ed population of the colonies, with no troops but hastily-collected 
volunteers, coming, half armed, and destitute of any knowledge ol 
war, firom the work-shops and fields. 

From ivhat quarter did they hope that they might receive aid ? 

"But then," said they, "we shall not be alone in the contest, 
England has enemies in Europe who will be glad to join us when 
they find that we have fully committed ourselves to the struggle. 
There are France, and Spain, and Holland. They are the nat- 
ural enemies of England. They have been at war with England 



388 THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 

half of the time for centuries. They are always ready to take 
advantage of any favorable opportunity to make war upon her. 
And though they will not help us now, while we only rebel against 
a tax, and are ready to submit to the English dominion again as 
soon as the tax is repealed, they w^ould willingly, and even gladly, 
join us if we would separate from her entirely, and declare our- 
selves a free and independent nation." 

W/iat general change of opinion on the subject of government 
took place at this time among the people? 

In the mean time, while discussions like these were going on 
among the statesmen and the members of Congress, a strong love 
of liberty and independence was rapidly extending among all 
classes of the people. They began to believe that in government, 
as in every thing else, men wxre competent to manage their own 
affairs, and they were right in this opinion. 

IIoiu have kings and nobles usually reasoned on this subject ? 

It has been a great point w4th despots and aristocrats, in all 
ages and in all countries, to try to convince the world that men 
are not capable of managing their own affairs, but that somebody 
must be exalted over them to govern them. " The wise and the 
good," they say, " must rule over the masses, who are ignorant 
and bad." 

In what toay does this reasonirig fail f 

Under pretense of conforming to this necessity, they themselves 
take the command, and keep the people under subjection to them, 
though, instead of being the wdse and the good, they are only cun- 
ning and wicked. It is not possible for the imagination to con- 
ceive of characters more selfish, profligate, and vile, than the line 
of English kings, with two or three doubtful exceptions, have uni- 
formly exhibited from the earliest periods to the present day. 
What is generally the character of hereditary legislators f 

It is the same with the kings of France and of all other coun- 
tries. Nobles, where a class of nobles exist, are no better. The 



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 389 

class of aristocrats that have governed England for the last cen- 
tury are proverbial all over the world for their idleness, their con- 
tempt for every thing good and useful, their heartlessness, and the 
vile, lawless, and profligate character which they maintain in pri~ 
vate life. There are some distinguished exceptions, it is true, but 
this is the general rule. Nor are the English aristocracy peculiar 
in this. It is so, and always has been so, with every aristocracy 
that the world has produced. It always must be so. 

How has the plan of putting government into the hands of the 
wise and good alioays resulted ? 

The plan of putting the government of a people into the hands 
of a few, in the hope that they will be the wise and the good, al- 
ways has resulted, and probably always will result, in exalting to 
power the cunning and the bad, that they may monopolize the en- 
joyments and honors of wealth, while they keep down the masses 
who produce it in abject and perpetual poverty. 

To what decision did the colonies finally come^ and hoio was 
this decision expressed? 

The people of the different colonies pondered on these things. 
They talked about them during the long and dismal winter. At 
the meeting of the Legislatures of the several colonies the ques- 
tion was discussed. Some of these Legislatures passed resolve? 
recommending independence. At length, when the members oi 
the Congress thought that the people of the country had come tc 
the conclusion that it would be best for them to separate from En- 
gland, they prepared to take measures for carrying the determina- 
tion into effect. Accordingly, about the middle of June, a resolu- 
tion on the subject was introduced. 

What was the resolution that was proposed in Congress? 

Resolved^ That these United States are, and of right ought tc 
be, free and independent states ; and that all political connection 
between us and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, to- 
tally dissolved. 



390 THE DECLAEATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 

What were the thoughts of the 7nembers of Congress xohen the 
resolution came before them f 

This resolution was moved by a member from Virginia, and 
seconded by a member from Massachusetts. It was listened to 
with profound and solemn attention. To pass it would subject 
every man who should vote for it, or sustain it in any way, to the 
penalty of death, in case the attempt to establish the resolutiori 
should fail. To be called upon to act,, therefore, on such a ques- 
tion, imposed a very heavy responsibility upon the assembly. It 
was a question of salvation or ruin for the country, and of life 
and death for every man in the Congress who should dare to vote 
upon it. 

What were the 2^'^oceedings of Congress in regard to the res- 
olution ? 

The Congress voted to postpone the consideration of the ques- 
tion for three days. At the end of the three days they postponed 
the final decision for a fortnight longer; and, in the mean time. 
as it was becoming more and more clear every day that the reso- 
lution would then be adopted, a committee was appointed to draw 
up the form of a declaration to announce to the world the de- 
cision which the colonies had formed, and to explain the reasons 
for it. 

Give some account of the committee that was ajpjpoiyited to di^aw 
up the Declaration of Independence, 

This committee consisted of five persons : their names were 
Adams, Sherman, Livingston, Jefierson, and Franklin. In the en- 
graving you see excellent portraits of these men. They all im- 
mortalized themselves by the courage they displayed in daring to 
draw up the Declaration of Independence, which they knew would 
bring upon them the most inveterate and implacable hostility of 
the English government. Adams and Jefferson afterward became 
presidents of the United States. Franklin was sent as an em- 
bassador to France, as we shall see by-and-by. Sherman and Ijiv- 



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 



391 




ADAMS, bUERMAN. LIVINGSTON, JEFFERSON, FRANKLIN 

ingston also subsequently attained to great distinction. The cen- 
tre figure, standing more conspicuously to view than the rest, is 
Jefferson. The artist has given him the most prominent place, 
because he was appointed by the committee to write the declara- 
tion. The one on the extreme left is John Adams. Franklin is 
on the extreme right. He has his spectacles in his hand. Sher- 
man stands a little behind, next to Adams, and Livingston still 
farther beyond. 

Hoio did the committee proceed in drawing up and consider- 
ing the Declaration f 

In the next engraving you will see another view of the commit- 
tee, representing them in the act of listening to the declaration 
which Jefferson had written. By comparing the faces in the two 
engravings, the reader will easily identify the several members in 
the latter. The members of the committee heard the declaration 
which Jefferson had drawn up, and approved it. Observe the se- 
rious but satisfied expression of their countenances as they listen. 
They made some slight alterations in it, and then reported it to 
Congress. After a very careful and solemn consideration of the 



392 



THE DPXLAKATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 




JEFFERSON BEADING THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 

subject, Congress finally decided to adopt it by a unanimous vote, 

and it was immediately proclaimed to the world. 
How was the Declaration received by the country f 
The whole country was filled with the highest animation and 

joy. Bells were rung, cannons were fired, and illuminations and 

bonfires were kindled all over the land. The whole country was 



PKOGRESS OF THE WAR. 393 

filled with rejoicing at the thought that in name, at least, the peo- 
ple were independent and free. But alas ! between assuming the 
name of independence and freedom and establishing the reality, 
a long and weary road of privation, danger, and suffering was to 
be traveled, and Congress and tlie country now had to set them- 
selves at work in earnest to prepare for the terrible journey. 



CHAPTER X. 

PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 

What was the general state of the country at this time f 
During the time while the contest had been going on in and 
around Boston, a great many other collisions had taken place be- 
tween the colonies and the British authorities in all parts of the 
country. The people had risen against the government in a great 
many different cities and towns. Various military expeditions 
had been organized. Governors had been driven away from their 
provinces, and forts had been taken. In a word, the British rule 
had been entirely overthrown almost from one extreme of the 
country to another, and the ministry in England saw that a very 
systematic, extended, and costly plan of operations would be re- 
quired to recover it again. 

^Yhat measures were adoj^ted hy the British goveimment f 
The government determined that they would recover it again, let 
the cost be what it might. So they induced the Parliament to 
make large grants of m.oney to pay the expense, and then raised 
a numerous army and equipped a powerful fleet, and sent them to 
America, with orders to prosecute the war on the most extended 
scale and in the most vigorous manner, unless they found that the 
Americans, when they saw how formidable the preparations were 
which had been made against them, would give up the hopeless 
contest and submit. 

R2 



394 PEOGRESS OF THE WAR. 

What was the alternative that they determined to offer to the 
Americans f 

" Make them first a fair offer," said the ministers to the com- 
manders of the army and of the fleet, "that if they will give up 
the rebellion and submit, they shall be pardoned — all except the 
leaders. If they will not accept this offer, then force your way 
into the country at all points, and march through it in every di- 
rection with fire and sword." 

Who was the commander-in-chief of the British armies^ and 
where was he at the present tim^e ? 

The general command of the army was given to Lord Howe, 
who had been expelled from Boston as related in a preceding chap- 
ter. He came to Staten Island, near New York. He brought 
with him there the forces that he had withdrawn from Boston, and 
also the large re-enforcements that had been sent from England. 
These, united, formed a large army. 

What loere his three plans f Did you find all the routes re- 
ferred to on the map f 

His plan was first to offer the rebels pardon if they would sub- 
mit and give up the leaders to punishment, and then, if they re- 
fused to do so, to invade the country by three distinct and inde- 
pendent expeditions. One was to land at New York, and conquer 
the cities of New York and Philadelphia, and overrun the Middle 
States. The second was to come down from Canada by the way 
of Lake Champlain and the River Hudson, so as to take possession 
of a broad belt of temtory extending from north to south through 
the very heart of the country, and thus cut off New England from 
all communication with the middle and southern colonies. The 
third plan was to invade the southern colonies, and, after taking 
possession of Charleston, overrun and conquer all the region 
around it.* 

* The pupil should by all means look out these proposed routes on a map of North 
America. 



PEOGRESS OF THE WAK. 3d5 

Give a7i account of the offers of pai'don that Howe made^ and 
of the replies made by the Americans. 

The plan of bringing the Americans to submission by offering 
them pardon did not succeed at all. As soon as General Howe 
landed on Staten Island, he sent a letter to General Washington, 
and afterward the Congress at Philadelphia sent a committee to 
him to learn what were the proposals he had to make. But these 
negotiations led to no result. All the power that Lord Howe had 
been invested with was to pardon the Americans if they would 
admit that they were rebellious subjects of the King of England, 
and return to their allegiance. The Americans, in reply, said that 
they were not the subjects of the King of England at all. They 
said, moreover, that they had been guilty of no crime, and would 
accept of no pardon. They were a free and independent people, 
and if Lord Howe was prepared to treat with them as such, they 
were ready to listen to what he had to say, but they would not 
receive any communication whatever that was addressed to them 
as subjects of the King of England in a state of rebellion. So 
Lord Howe found that the plan of pardoning the revolutionary ar- 
mies would not succeed, and he began to prepare vigorously for 
war. 

Whcd VMS the idea of the Amei^icans in res2)ect to the conduct 
of the loar ? 

Of course the Americans knew very well that no force which 
they could bring into the field would be strong enough to conquer 
the English armies. They knew that they must at first retreat 
before them, but they hoped in the end to wear them out by the 
stubbornness and pertinacity of their resistance. 

Give an account of the commander-in-chief of the army, and 
of his situation when chosen to the command. 

General Washington was a calm and quiet, but very determined 
man. He was about forty-five years old at the time when he was 
chosen commander of the American armies. He was a gentleman 



396 PEOGRESS OF THE WAR. 

of Virginia, living in quiet retirement at the time with his wife and 
family. In the opposite engraving is a portrait of him as he ap- 
peared a short time before his appointment. His fortune was 
large, and he was surrounded with every means of comfort and en- 
joyment. But, though he had thus so much to lose, and, person- 
ally, so little to gain by undertaking the very dangerous service re- 
quired of him, he accepted the appointment without any hesitation, 
and immediately proceeded to Cambridge, as we have already seen, 
to take the command. He said, moreover, that he would not re- 
ceive any compensation for his services. He would keep an exact 
account of his expenses, and that account Congress might pay, 
but nothing more. 

Describe the difficidties that Washington had to encounter. 

Washington had immense difficulties to encounter in managing 
his armies. The soldiers were almost altogether what are called 
raw recruits — that is, they were young men from work-shops and 
farms, who came to the camp as volunteers, bringing with them 
any sort of swords or guns that they could obtain. They knew 
nothing about war, and, though at first they were full of zeal, they 
soon became wearied and discouraged when things went against 
them. In the winters they suffered extremely from cold, and 
sometimes from hunger. Congress was unable to furnish them 
with suitable supplies. The English soldiers, on the other hand, 
were provided with the very best of arms and accoutrements, and 
with abundance of comfortable clothing. 

Describe the comparative condition of the British and Amer- 
ican armies in resjject to shelter. 

The English armies, in the course of the war, being generally 
strongest wherever they went, took possession of the cities and 
large towns, where, especially in the cold and stormy seasons of 
the year, they lived sumptuously in elegant mansions, and even the 
soldiers were well and comfortably housed, while the Americans 
were suffering cold, and hunger, and nakedness in such miserable 



PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 



397 




■WASHINGTON BEIORE HE U \.S APPOI^ TED TO THE COMMAND 

Imts as they could build in the woods, or under worn-out and 
leaky tents, which were wholly insufficient to exclude either the 
snow, the wind, or the rain. 

What aid did the American soldiers receive from their friends 
at home f 

Their friends at home did all in their power to supply their 
wants and relieve their suiFerings. Mothers and sisters worked 
late in the winter nights to make warm clothing for them ; and 



398 



PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 



boys, too young and tender to be exposed to such dangers, were 
sent to carry them to the camp. People made contributions to 
procure arms, and ammunition, and supplies of food, and the Leg- 
islatures of the different colonies devised the best measures they 
could to provide for the wants of the army, and assist them to 
keep the field against the invaders. 

W/iat was the course of the war in the neighborhood of Nero 
YorJcf 

Still, in spite of all that could be done, the American army was 
for a long time too weak to resist its enemies. They were first 
driven out of New York. Then the forts which they had built on 
the Hudson Kiver above New York were taken, and Washington 
was forced to retire farther and farther into the interior. Some- 
times he found some small country house which he could make his 




Washington's head-quarters at tappan. 

head-quarters for a time, and thus, for a brief period, be under the 
shelter of a roof. All the houses which he thus occupied are now 
greatly honored, and are visited every year by many strangers, who 
regard them with feelings of the deepest interest, and love to 
linger near them, thinking of the days when the Father of his Coun- 



PEOGKESS OF THE WAR. 



399 



try bore within those humble walls his heavy burden of anxiety 
and care. 

Describe Was/migton's tent, and why did he have occasion 
for it? 

It was not always that Washington could have a roof of any 
Ivind to shelter him. He lived often in a tent, in the midst of his 
soldiers, and exposed to continual alarms. The tent that he used 
has been preserved to the present day. It is packed in two great 
leather coverings, the same in which it used to be packed when it 
was in service in the war. The poles by which it was supported 
lie in a bundle by the side of it. 




Washington's tent. 



How was such a tent set up f 

The central part of the tent was supported by the poles, which 
were set in the ground, and framed or lashed together above. Then 
the tent-cloth was spread over these poles, and the sides were drawn 
out by means of strong cords, and fastened to stakes driven into 
the ground. It was necessary to make these cords and stakes very 
strong, and to secure all the fastenings very carefully, or there 
would be danger, in case of a wind suddenly arising in the night, 
that the tent might be blown away, in which case the inmates 
would be left wholly exposed to the wind and rain. Indeed, this is 
an accident that not unfrequently occurs in military encampments. 



400 



PEOGRESS OF THE WAE. 




THE CAMP-CHCT 



How ivas he provided with coohing utensils f 
The cooking utensils which were used in the camp are still 

preserved, together 
with the chest in which 
they were carried from 
one place to another in 
the course of the cam- 
paigns. 

Describe the cam- 
paign in JSfeio Jersey. 
One of the worst pe- 
riods of privation and 
suffering that the Amer- 
ican army endured was 
while the British sol- 
diers were driving them 
through New Jersey in the ftdl and early in the winter after they 
took possession of New York. General Washington was obliged 
to retreat, for his army was so inferior to that of his enemies that 
to fight them would have been certain destruction. He was driv- 
en, therefore, from river to river, and from town to town, his army 
growing more and more destitute and wretched every day, until 
they were all reduced to the extremity of suffering and despair. 
The English came on, following them every where triumphant. 
The inhabitants of that part of the country became entirely dis- 
couraged. It was useless, they said, to contend against so power- 
ful a foe, and many of them signified to General Howe their will- 
ingness to submit. 

What occui^red when Washington reached the Delaware ? 
At last Washington reached the banks of the Delaware at 
Trenton.* He made all haste to get across the river. So narrow 
was his escape that the van of the English army began to enter 

* Let the pupil not fail to look out all these localities on a map of the United States 



PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 401 

the town before the rear of Washington's army had entirely lefi 
it. The EngKsh, being satisfied for the present with this success, 
took possession of Trenton, and quartered themselves comfortably 
in the houses, to rest for a time, while Washington, with his half- 
frozen and half-famished followers, were driven into the woods and 
fields across the river, to seek such shelter from the cold December 
storms as tents and huts could aftbrd them. 

What effect did the news of these events jproduce in Congress f 

Congress was greatly alarmed. They expected that the British 
would now cross the Delaware themselves, and come down upon 
them at Philadelphia. There was nobody that could protect them. 
But these fears proved groundless, for the aspect of things was all 
at once changed by a most unexpected and extraordinary feat per- 
formed by Washington and his army, which has since been great- 
ly distinguished in history as one of the most remarkable events 
of the Eevolution. 

Why did not the British hmnediately jaursue the Americans 
across the Delaware f 

It was in the month of December when the Americans were 
driven across the Delaware, and the British concluded, as has al- 
ready been said, that they would wait a little while before they 
pursued them. The ice was beginning to form in the river, and 
it was dangerous to attempt to cross it with a large body of men. 
They concluded to wait, therefore, until the river should be frozen 
entirely, and then they thought they could march over on the ice. 
In the mean time, they thought that the American army would be 
gradually wasting away by hunger, cold, and exposure, while they 
themselves were all resting from their fatigues in the warm and 
comfortable houses of Trenton, and of other towns not far distant. 

IIoio long did Washington loait, and ichat design did he then 
form ? 

Washington waited a fortnight, and then he conceived the daring 
design of secretly crossing the river in the night with all his army, 

Cc 



402 PEOGEESS OF THE WAE. 

and surprising that part of the British army that had remained in 
Trenton. This plan he carried most successfully into effect. 

Give an account of his exploit of recrossing the Delaware, 

He chose the night of Christmas for the time, thinking that the 
British officers and soldiers would be engaged that night in festiv- 
ities and carousals, and that they would be, therefore, the more 
easily and completely surprised. Accordingly, on Christmas day, 
he took all the men that he could muster, and twenty pieces of 
cannon, and marched up the river about eight miles to a place 
where he thought he could cross without being observed by any 
of the British sentinels or scouts. It was a cold and gloomy night, 
the river was full of floating ice, and they anticipated great diffi- 
culty in making the passage. 

Why could they not cross where they were, without taking so 
long a inarch up the river? 

They could not cross where they were, because they knew that, 
if they attempted it, the British troops would take the alarm, and 
come out in great force on the bank of the river to stop them. 
They would have brought cannons down to the bank, and would 
have fired such heavy shot across the water that the boats would 
all have been sunk and the men drowned. 

Were the British watching at all, at this time, for the coming 
of the Americans f 

The British had sentinels all along on the bank of the river op- 
posite to Trenton, and these sentinels were commanded to watch 
closely, and if they observed any signs that the Americans were 
coming, to give the alarm. They also sent men called scouts up 
and down the river, as far as they thought there was any proba- 
bility that the Americans would go ; but they did not suppose 
that they would go so far as eight miles, and so the Americans 
crossed in safety, and then marched down to Trenton. The en- 
graving on the opposite page represents the scene, showing prin- 
cipally the boat which conveyed the officers. 



PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 



40o 




' '^- .^^A. 




VVASHfNiiON CROSSING THE DELAWARE. 



404 



PROGEESS OF THE WAR. 



Give ail account of the battle at Trenton. 

They arrived at Trenton very early in the morning, and took 
tJie British entirely by surprise. A terrible combat ensued in the 
streets and in the outskirts of the town. The Americans gained 




a complete victory. The officer who had been left in command 
at Trenton was killed, and almost all his men were taken prison- 
ers. That evening Washington went back again across the riv- 
er, carrying all his prisoners with him, and thus reached a place 
of safety before the British had time to bring up the rest of their 
troops, which had been quartered at different towns in the vicinity. 

What other ojyerations did Washington -^mdertahs ? 

Almost immediately afterward, too, the British were attacked 
by Washington in a similar manner in several otlier unexpected 



THE EXPEDITION OF BUEGOYNE. 405 

quarters ; and so successful were these bold operations, that the 
tide of victory was entirely turned against them, and in the end 
they were driven back again to New York, and their plan of reach- 
ing and taking possession of Philadelphia in this way was entirely 
defeated. 

W/iat effect did these events produce throughout the country f 

The British officers were thunderstruck at this sudden change 
in the aspect of affairs. The news of these successes spread every 
where throughout the cotmtry, and produced the greatest excite- 
ment. Bells were rung, cannons were fired, and all the towns and 
villages of the land were enlivened with bonfires and illuminations* 
The people were awakened to new enthusiasm in the cause of the 
Revolution. It was possible to conquer, after all, they found; 
and great multitudes of new men came to join the army. 

Did these victories lead to the immediate and final success of 
the Americans? 

The American army, however, passed through many periods of 
great discouragement and suffering after this, and many long and 
weary years passed before they gained the final victory. 



CHAPTER XI. 

THE EXPEDITION OF BURGOYNE. 



What was the plan of the British ministry that was intrusted 
to Burgoyne f 

It was related in the last chapter that one of the plans of the 
English ministry for overrunning and completely subjugating the 
territory of the American colonies was to send an army from Can- 
ada, to come down through the heart of the country, by the way of 
Lake Champlain and the Hudson River, to New York, thus cut- 
ting the country, as it were, in two. The officer who was appoint- 
ed to take charge of this expedition was General Burgoyne. He 



406 THE EXPEDITION OF BUEGOYNE. 

attempted to execute the plan, but he did not succeed. Instead 
of conquering and taking possession of the country as he advanced, 
he found himself getting deeper and deeper into difficulty the far- 
ther he came, until at last his whole army was surrounded and 
hemmed in, and, in the end, he himself and all his troops were 
seized and made prisoners. 

Give an account of the setting out of the expedition^ and of the 
general plan of it. 

At the commencement, the prospects erf the campaign were very 
bright and cheering. Burgoyne set out from Canada with an army 
of about seven thousand men. This was a very large force for 
such an expedition, and they all felt entirely confident of success. 
The plan was for Burgoyne to come down from Canada by the 
north, while, at the same time. General Howe was to go up the 
Hudson River from New York and meet him at Albany. 

What course of procedure did Burgoyne adopt in 7'espect to 
the Indians^ and id hat ivere his own vieios on the subject ? 

One of the first measures which Burgoyne adopted after he com- 
menced his march was to gather together the chieftains of the prin- 
cipal Indian tribes that lived in that part of the country, and en- 
gage them to join him with their warriors and become his allies in 
the war. He himself was averse to tliis plan, but he was ordered 
to adopt it by the British government, and he did not dare to dis- 
obey. He thought it wrong for a civilized nation to employ such 
cruel and bloodthirsty savages against men of their own race and 
kindred ; but the government insisted that he should do it. 

IIoio did the government reason on the subject ? 

" If we do not employ the Indians to fight on our side," said 
they, "the Americans will engage them on theirs, and we may 
as well have the benefit of their assistance as they." 

What arrangement did Burgoyne make with the Indians^ and, 
what instructions did he give them ? 

So Burgoyne convened the Indian chieftains, and by means of 



THE EXPEDITION OF BURGOYNE. 



407 




I * « \ ^ 

BURGOYNE AND THE INDIAN CHIEFS. 



various promises, induced them to agree that they would send a 
horde of their savage followers to accompany his army in their 
march down the country, and fight with them against the Amer- 
icans, He, however, charged them very strictly to give up their 
cruel mode of warfare, and especially forbade them ever to kill any 
women or children, or even any man except when he was actually 
fighting against them. The Indians promised to obey these in- 
junctions, but any one might have known that they would never 
keep their promises. 

Describe the jprodamation that he issued. 

Although Burgoyne thus charged the Indians to be merciful in 
the war, still he thought there would be no harm in availing him- 
self of their alliance for the purpose of frightening the people a little 



408 THE EXPEDITION OF BURGOYNE. 

in advance. He accordingly issued a terrible proclamation, say- 
ing that he was coming down through the country with a large 
army of his own, and with troops of Indians as allies ; and that, 
if the inhabitants would at once submit to his authority, he would 
protect them ; if not, he led them to expect that he should not 
only resort to the most severe measures against them with his own 
troops, but that he would let loose the savages upon them, and 
that they would devastate the country with iire and sword, and 
inflict the most horrid cruelties upon the inhabitants. 

W/iat was the effect of the proclamation f 

General Burgoyne was greatly censured for issuing such a proc- 
lamation as this, even by the English themselves. He said, how- 
ever, that all he intended by it was to frighten the Americans, and 
thus induce them to submit without bloodshed. But it did not 
frighten them, nor induce them to submit. On the contrary, it 
had exactly the opposite tendency. It aroused the whole coun- 
try to a state of extreme exasperation, and the people came in 
great numbers to join the army that was sent to meet and resist 
the invaders. General Gates had the command of this army. 

Did Burgoyne ineet with any effectual opjjosition at the com- 
mencement of his 7na7xh? 

Burgoyne, however, came on for some weeks without meeting 
any serious opposition. He came to some forts on the shores of 
Lake Champlain, but the garrisons were not strong enough to de- 
fend them, and so they retreated. Burgoyne sent detachments of 
his army to pursue these troops, while he himself pressed on with 
the great body of his army. 

What tvere his anticipations in respect to the result f 

He was filled with exultation at this success, and was confident 
that he should have no difficulty in fully accomplishing the object 
of the expedition. " Indeed," said he, " we shall soon have the 
American army between two fires ; for the force which General 
Howe is sending up from New York is coming on from the south 



THE EXPEDITION OF BURGOYNE. 409 

as I am advancing from the north, and we shall soon get General 
Gates between us, and so have him entirely in our power." 

At lohat point did the difficulties of the expedition begin, and 
what were the difficulties ? 

Burgoyne said this and thought this about the time that he had 
arrived at the southern end of Lake Champlain.* Up to that time 
every thing had gone prosperously and well with him. But now 
his difficulties began. He was obliged, here, to leave the water, 
and advance wholly by a march on the land. But he found the 
road all broken up. The Americans had been upon the road, and 
Iiad made it utterly impassable. They had broken down the 
bridges, and felled great trees across the way, and rolled mon- 
strous stones down, wherever there were stones to be found on the 
heights above, and piled in brush and tree-tops, in great heaps, 
here and there, to such an extent that Burgoyne's army could not 
move at all until they had cleared all these obstructions away. 
This took so much time that the troops could not advance more 
than a mile in a day. 

IIoio was he situated in respect to provisions ? 

Another difficulty which Burgoyne soon experienced was the 
want of provisions for his men and his horses. It requires an 
immense quantity of provisions, of course, every day to supply 
the wants of seven thousand men, and a vast amount of hay and 
grain besides, for the long train of horses that are always re- 
quired to draw the baggage and the artillery of such an army. 
It is not possible to carry provisions for such a multitude suffi- 
cient for more than a very few days. The generals always de- 
pend upon obtaining a large portion of their supplies from the 
country itself as they march along. 

What had been his expectations in respect to provisions f 

General Burgoyne had depended upon doing this. He sup- 
posed that the inhabitants of the country generally were not much 

* Do not fail to look out the route of the expedition on a map of the United States. 

s 



410 THE EXPEDITION OP BURGOYNE. 

interested in the Revolution, and that when they saw that -the 
rebel army, as he called it, was defeated and driven away, and 
that he was advancing with so overwhelming a force, they would 
all come over to his side, and would supply him abundantly with 
all that his army would need. 

How loere these expectations fulfilled f 

The event plainly proved that he was entirely mistaken in 
these calculations. He found the inhabitants, wherever he came, 
immovably fixed and determined to resist and oppose his progress 
by every means in their power. Instead of aiding him to procure 
supplies of food, they threw every possible obstacle in his way. 
They drove off their cattle, and moved away their grain and flour, 
and left the country every where empty and destitute. The army 
soon began to be seriously in danger of suffering for want of food. 

Give an account of the exjpedition of General Baum^ and of 
the result of it. 

The frontiers of the State of Vermont were not very far to the 
eastward of the part of the country where the British army now 
were, and Burgoyne was about this time informed that the people 
of that colony were not hostile to him, and that if he would send 
a detachment of his troops there, the inhabitants would no doubt 
meet them in a friendly spirit, and furnish them with, or at least 
allow them to procure, a supply of food. Accordingly, Burgoyne 
sent out a strong detachment, under the command of an officer 
named General Baum. Baum had not, however, gone far into 
Vermont before he found, instead of a welcome, a large body of 
Vermonters drawn up in battle array, ready to fight him. He 
found that they were stronger than he was, and so he took post 
on a hill, intrenched himself there, and sent back to Burgoyne 
for help. Burgoyne sent forward a strong re-enforcement ; but, 
before the re-enforcement came up, the Americans had conquered 
Baum's army, and made them nearly all prisoners, and when the 
other troops arrived they attacked them too, defeated them, and 



THE EXPEDITION OP BURaOYNE. 411 

compelled them to retreat in confusion and dismay back to Bur- 
goyne's camp, leaving all their cannon behind them. The British 
army lost by this expedition about seven hundred men. 

What evil results for the expedition came from the defeat of 
Baum f 

This was a terrible blow to the expedition. The army not only 
failed in obtaining supplies of food, but it was greatly weaken- 
ed in force by the loss of the men. Besides, tire moral effect of 
the disaster was very injurious upon the portipn of the army that 
remained. The soldiers began to despair. The Indians, too, 
finding that the expedition was not likely to succeed, and that 
Burgoyne would not, or could not give them enough to eat, when 
he had promised them the greatest plenty of every thing, grew 
tired of the service, and parties of them were continually leaving 
the camp and going home. In a word, the expedition was grad- 
ually getting into very serious difficulty. 

Give an account of the jplayi foi'med for bringing Jane 2£'Crea 
to the British camp. 

The disposition of the Indians to abandon the enterprise was 
greatly increased by a very tragical and dreadful occurrence that 
took place about this time. It seems that one of the officers of 
the British army, whose name was Captain Jones, was engaged 
to a young girl named Jane M'Crea, who was then living with 
her aunt near a fort not very far from the place where Burgoyne's 
army was now encamped. Captain Jones conceived a desire to 
bring her to the camp, where he could take her under his protec- 
tion. He did not venture to go for her himself, but he sent a par- 
ty of Indians for her. He told the Indians that if they would 
make their way to her aunt's, see her, and propose to her to come, 
and then bring her safely to the camp to him, he would give them 
a reward. The reward that he offered them was a barrel of rum ! 

What was the result of this undertaking f 

The Indians went. They traveled across the country in a 



412 THE EXPEDITION OF BURGOYNE. 

stealthy manner, and when thej arrived at the house, they watch- 
ed their opportunity when the rest of the family were gone out, 
and seizing Jane and her aunt, they hurried them away. They 
were immediately pursued, but it was impossible to overtake them. 
The Indians, however, separated on the way. One party arrived 
at the camp with the aunt, but the others, when they came in, in- 
stead of Jane herself, alive and well, brought only her scalp. Her 
aunt knew it by the long black and glossy hair. 

What effect did this occurrence produce on the army f 
The whole army was horror-struck at this atrocity. The In- 
dians said that Jane was shot by a bullet fired by white men who 
were pursuing them, but it was generally believed that they kill- 
ed her themselves. The story went all over the land, and the 
greatest indignation was excited every where against the British 
for employing such brutal monsters to fight against their brethren. 
Indeed, the British themselves began to be thoroughly ashamed 
of, and to abhor their confederates, and they instinctively evinced 
this feeling so plainly that the Indians became alienated from them, 
and went off more and more. 

Who was the American commander opp)Osed to Biirgoyne^ and 
what loas now his condition f 

In the mean time, the forces of General Gates were constantly 
Increasing, and he went on concentrating them every day, so that 
soon Burgoyne was entirely surrounded. He had now no hope 
except in the arrival of General Howe's army from the south. 
But it did not come. 

Wliat was the situation of Burgoyne at his encampment on 
Hudson River? 

The opposite engraving represents the situation of Burgoyne's 
camp on the banks of the Hudson River at one time while he was 
thus hemmed in on all sides. The camp is on the western bank, 
so that in the view we are looking down the river. The Ameri- 
can army is a short distance below. We can see the line of Bur- 



THE EXPEDITION OF BURGOYNE. 



4i: 




5URG0YNE S ENCAMPMENT ON THE HUDSO 



gojne's intrencliments for defense against the Americans running 
from the bank of the river up the hill-side, and at some distance 
beyond a row of American tents on the brow of the declivity. 
Being thus established south of him, the Americans cut off his 
progress down the river, and by taking possession of all the roads, 
and bridges, and narrow passes among the hills, they prevented 
his retreat in any other direction. He finally was so closely 
hemmed in that he could not even send away or receive a messen- 
ger, and thus not only could procure no supplies, but he could not 
even communicate with General Howe, to learn when he might 
expect help. Thus he was placed in a situation which was ex- 
ceedingly critical, and which filled him with the deepest anxiety. 



414 THE FRENCH ALLIANCE. 

How did the expedition end f 

At length, when his provisions were entirely exhausted, and no 
hope of relief from any quarter appeared, he concluded to give up 
the contest and surrender. So he sent word to General Gates, 
and articles of surrender were drawn up and agreed to. Burgoyne 
himself gave up his sword, and his soldiers marched out of their 
camp to a place by the river side, and there laid down their arms 
in piles, where the Americans could take them. It was agreed 
that they themselves should not be kept prisoners, but should be 
allowed to go back again to England on condition that they would 
not come again to fight against the Americans during the war. 

What were the fruits of this victory on the part of the Amer- 
icans ? 

The number of men that thus gave themselves up was between 
five and six thousand ; and besides the muskets, there were thirty- 
five brass field-pieces taken, and a great quantity of ammunition. 
The tidings that this formidable expedition was thus brought to 
an end spread rapidly through the country, and awakened univer- 
sal and unbounded exultation, and gave a new and very powerful 
impulse to the American cause. 



CHAPTEE XII. 

THE FRENCH ALLIANCE. 

In what way had the Americans hoped to receive help in gain- 
ing their independence ? 

It has already been stated that when the American Congress 
declared the independence of the country, they hoped to have help 
from some European nation, and especially from France, in carry- 
ing on the war, and they had sent out commissioners some time 
before this period to propose to the French government that they 
should form a treaty of alliance with them. 



THE FRENCH ALLIANCE. 415 

How did ike French government receive the commissioners that 
were sent out^ and lohat did they at first decide to do f 

The celebrated Benjamin Franklin was one of these commission- 
ers. The French government received them privately in a very 
friendly manner, but for a time would not publicly recognize them 
as the agents of an independent nation. They had first to con- 
sider whether it would be prudent to acknowledge the independ- 
ence of the American colonies or not. If they were to do so, and 
if, by their assistance, the colonies were to establish their inde- 
pendence, and separate themselves finally from the British empire, 
their old enemies, the English, would be humbled and weakened 
by it very much, and this was, of course, greatly desired ; but then, 
if they were to take sides with the Americans in the contest, and 
the Americans should not succeed after all, then they would have 
only brought upon themselves the terrible anger of the English, 
without accomplishing any purpose at all ; so that they thought 
it prudent to wait a little, and see how the ilmericans were Hkely 
to succeed, before they ventured to join them. 

What effect did Washington's victory on the Delaware have 
on the negotiations at Paris ? 

When the news came of Washington's driving the British ar- 
mies back from the Delaware to New York, they were encouraged. 
Still they were not yet sure that the Americans would be able, 
even with their aid, to succeed in the end. They, however, treat- 
ed the commissioners with more attention, and even furnished them 
secretly with considerable help. They did, indeed, all that they 
could do without exciting the suspicions of the English. They 
would not, however, openly treat with the commissioners, or re- 
ceive them at court, or acknowledge them in any way as the agents 
of an independent nation. They were obliged to be extremely 
cautious, for there was an English embassador in Paris, as usual 
at this time, and he was watching all their doings with the closest 
scrutiny. 



416 THE FRENCH ALLIANCE. 

What attetn2)t at comniunication vnth the English einhassador 
did the American commissioners make, and what was the result 

■fit? 

The American commissioners sent a note at one time to this 
embassador on some subject relating to an exchange of prisoners, 
but he would not receive it. They sent it a second time. He 
then sent back a note to them, saying that " his majesty's em- 
bassador receives no communications from rebels unless they come 
to implore his majesty's mercy." The commissioners sent back 
the note, saying that, " having received that indecent paper from 
liim, they returned it to him for his more mature consideration." 

WTiat effect did the cajpture of Burgoyne jproduce in Paris? 

At length, when the news of the capture of Burgoyne arrived 
in France, the government was decided. They acknowledged the 
independence of the United States, and formed a treaty of com- 
merce with them, and immediately afterward Franklin and the 
other commissioners were publicly presented at court. The scene 
is represented in the engraving on the opposite page. 

What effect did it jproduce in England ? 

The effect of the capture of Burgoyne was as marked in En- 
gland as it had been in America and in France. When tlie gov- 
ernment learned the news, and especially when they heard that 
the French government had acknowledged the independence of the 
United States, they were seriously alarmed. They began to re- 
gret that they had ever undertaken the war. 

Hoio did the English government noio reason in resjpect to the 
war, and ivhat conclusion did they come to f 

It would have been better, they were now convinced, to have 
allowed the Americans the privilege they claimed — the same priv- 
ilege which all other British subjects enjoyed — namely, that of 
having all questions of taxes passed upon by Legislatures chosen 
by the people themselves who would have the taxes to pay. This 
was all that the Americans at first asked. If the English govern- 



THE FRENCH ALLIANCE. 



417 




FRANKLIN AT THE FRENCH COURT. 



ment had allowed these claims at the beginning, there would have 
been no war. And now, seeing that they had carried on the war 
for some years without making any progress whatever, and observ- 
ing what a serious turn affairs were taking, they came to the con- 
tusion to yield. 

D2 



418 THE FRENCH ALLIANCE. 

W/iaf measures did they adopt for ^making peace? 

They appointed commissioners, and sent them out to America, 
to say to Congress that they were willing to make peace, and grant 
them what they had demanded. They sent these commissioners 
out with all haste, in order that they might get to America and 
make peace with the colonies before the news should reach them 
that France had acknowledged their independence. 

How were the pro2:)osals received f 

The commissioners arrived, and laid their offers before Con- 
gress, but the proposals were immediately rejected. It was too 
late. "That was," said Congress, " what we demanded at first, 
and if you had acknowledged our right at the outset all this trouble 
would have been saved ; but you refused, and compelled us to 
combine together, and establish an independent national govern- 
ment, in order that we might defend ourselves, and now we can 
not go back. We are willing to treat with you for peace when 
you are ready to acknowledge our independence, and withdraw 
your fleets and armies from the country, but not before." 

How did the comraissioners then attempt to induce Congress 
to accede to their proposals? 

The commissioners, when they found that these open and pub- 
lic proposals were rejected, made secret attempts to bribe Con- 
gress. They made communications privately to some of the lead- 
ing members, offering them large sums of money and high offices 
under the king if they would give their votes in Congress, and 
use their influence to induce the country to return again under 
the dominion of the king. The members, however, rejected these 
offers with scorn, and published an account of the attempts made 
to bribe them in the newspapers. 

What induced the British army now to leave Philadelp) Mat 

Very soon after this the British withdrew from Philadelphia, 
which they had taken some time before, and retreated through 
New Jersey to New York. They left Philadelphia for fear that, 



THE TREASON OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. 419 

if the Frencli were to send out a fleet to assist the Americans, it 
would go up the Delaware River, and shut their army in. Thus 
the Middle States came again into the power of the Americans. 
WAat effect did the arrival of the French fleet jjroduce f 
In a short time a French fleet did appear, and the hearts of 
the Americans were at once greatly encouraged, and their cause 
strengthened by the presence and assistance of their powerful al- 
Kes. The French continued to assist them after this, both by 
land and sea, to the end of the war. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

THE TREASON OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. 

Who toas Benedict Arnold, and for what is he celebrated? 

One of the most extraordinary events that occurred during the 
history of the Revolution was the attempt of one of the American 
generals to betray a fort on the Hudson River into the hands of 
the British. The name of the general who was guilty of this 
treason was Benedict Arnold. His plot was discovered just in 
season to prevent him from carrying it into effect, but not soon 
enough to prevent his securing his own safety by making his es- 
cape. If he had been taken he would have been hung. . 

What was the nature of the crime ofivhich Arnold was guilty? 

The crime was treason. He accepted a trust from the American 
government under the pretense that he was a friend to the Amer- 
ican cause, and the trust which was thus committed to him he be- 
trayed to the enemy. The crime of thus betraying one's own coun- 
try is treason, and the man who is guilty of it is called a traitor. 

What ivas AiiiolcVs character ctjid position ? 

Arnold was an intriguing and unprincipled man, but he was 
possessed of talents and of a certain kind of influence, and he had 
been employed in various ways by the American Congress, both 



420 



THE TREASON OF BENEDICT AENOLD. 




BENEDICT ARNOLD 



in civil and military services. 
In the course of these employ- 
ments he quarreled with the gov- 
ernment, and also with the other 
officers of the army, and in the 
end, partly from revenge, and 
partly from a hope of making 
his own fortune by the rewards 
which he expected to gain, he re- 
solved to betray the American 
cause in some way to the Brit- 
ish. He had lived very extrav- 
agantly, and was greatly in debt, 
and he hoped, by the money 
which he should obtain for his 
treason, to extricate himself from all his difficulties. 

Describe the situation of the Highlands and of West Point, 
The Americans were in possession at this time of a strongly 
fortified post about fifty miles up the Hudson River, in the midst 

^ of the Highlands at West Point, 

where the celebrated military acad- 
emy of the United States now 
stands. The river at this part of 
its course flows through a very 
narrow channel, winding its way, 
with many sudden curves and turn- 
ings, among the wildest scenery, 
with lofty mountains close to its 
banks, whose precipitous sides descend to the very margin of the 
water. In a word, the situation of West Point was such that it 
commanded what might be considered a mountain pass, and was, 
in some sense, the key to the whole interior of the country. Thus 
it was an exceedingly important position. 




VIEW IN THE HIGHLAND? 



THE TREASON OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. 421 

What teas the plan that Arnold formed ? 

Arnold, after having formed a secret understanding with the 
British general-in-chief at New York that he was to be the means 
of procuring for liim some great advantage over the Americans, 
for which he was afterward to be properly rewarded, contrived, 
by a great deal of manoeuvring, to get himself appointed to the 
command of this post. His command included West Point, and 
several other posts connected with it and depending upon it. His 
plan was to betray the whole into the hands of the British gen- 
eral. 

Why did he sujypose that the British would he particularly 
pleased to have that j^ost betrayed to them? 

It would, of course, be a great prize to them, for it would give 
them possession of the whole river. Besides, there was a very 
large amount of stores and ammunition deposited at West Point, 
and these would, of course, fall into the hands of the British when 
the fort was surrendered to them. The possession of these forts, 
and the consequent command of the river, would enable the British 
to divide the New England states from the rest of the country. 

Describe the relative position of the British and American ar- 
mies at this time, and the arrangements on the frontier. 

The name of the British general who commanded at New York 
was Sir Henry Clinton. He not only had possession of New York 
itself at this time, but he also held a considerable portion of the 
country up the river on both sides. Along the northern bound- 
ary of the land which the British forces thus held they had guards 
stationed to prevent people from passing to and fro, and to give 
notice in case the Americans were approaching. This frontier 
was called the British lines. In the same manner, the southern 
border of the land which the Americans held was protected by a 
guard, and was called the American lines. Between the American 
and British lines was a tract of country, not very wide, which be- 
longed to neither side. This was called the Neutral Ground. 



422 THE TREASON OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. 

What teas the difficulty i7i the waij of Arnold's communicating 
vnth the British general f 

Of course, in carrying on his correspondence with Sir Henry 
Chnton in New York, Arnold was obliged to get his letters con- 
veyed in some way or other across both the American and British 
lines, and also over the Neutral Ground, or else send them down 
the river. 

Who ivas Bevei-'ly Robinson^ and lohere did he originally live? 

The way in which he managed to pass these letters without 
suspicion was through a man named Colonel Beverly Robinson. 
Eobinson had lived before this time in a pleasant country house 
nearly opposite to West Point, on the eastern side of the river ; 
but when the Revolution broke out he had joined the British, and 
had gone to New York, and his house had been confiscated. 
The engraving below represents a view of this residence. Arnold 




made this place his head-quarters. It was just across the river 
from West Point, and it was, moreover, very central and conven- 
ient of access to the other places that were under Arnold's com- 
mand. 

How did Robinson contrive to convey the letters bach and forth? 

One way in which Arnold contrived to pass his letters to and 



THE TREASON OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. 423 

fro between himself and Robinson was under pretense that he was 
negotiating with him in respect to the restoration of his property, 
which Robinson contended had been unjustly confiscated. 
What other may ivas there of conveying the letters f 

Another way by which the letters were sometimes passed was 
by means of a sloop-of-war, which Clinton sent up the river as high 
as she dared to go, for this very purpose. The name of this sloop 
was the Vulture. The Vulture ascended until she came to a nar- 
row place not very far from the entrance to the Highlands, oppo- 
site to a point on the eastern bank of the river called Teller's Point. 
She remained there some days, and many of the negotiations were 
carried on through her aid. 

Describe the relative situation of these jplaces. 

The relative situation of all these places may be plainly seen 
by referring to the map over the leaf. West Point is near the 
upper margin of the map, on the western bank of the river. The 
fort there was on an eminence above the river. It was called 
Fort Putnam. The ruins of it still remain. The situation of 
Robinson's house is shown too, on the opposite bank of the river, 
a little below West Point. 

Whei'e did the Vulture lay when she was sent up the river? 
What did the Americans do when they saw her f 

About fifteen miles farther down is seen the place where the 
Vulture lay at anchor when she was sent up the riyer. It was 
in the narrows opposite Teller's Point. The Americans wondered 
what she came up there for, and they began to make preparations 
to bring a cannon to Teller's Point, and drive her away. 

Hoio was the correspondence inanagedf 

The correspondence which Arnold carried on with Sir Henry 
Clinton through the Vulture and through Robinson was, of course, 
very brief indeed, and very vague and indefinite in its terms. It 
would have been exceedingly dangerous to have written a full ac- 
count of his plan, for all attempts to communicate across the lines 



424 



THE TREASON OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. 



were watched very closely, and Arnold knew perfectly well that 
if he were detected in these plots there would not be any mercy 
shown him, but that he would immediately be hung. 

What arrangement was made between Arnold and the British 
general for a full and filial comm^unication with each other? 

Arnold would not, therefore, enter at all into details in respect 
to his plan in his letters, but said that Sir Henry Clinton must 
send one of his officers up the river to confer with him in person. 
He would appoint a secret place of meeting, he said, and so com- 
municate verbally the precise proposals he had to make. The 
British general acceded to this plan, and appointed a young offi> 
cer named Major Andre to go up the river to the Vulture, in ex^ 
pectation that Arnold would meet him there. 




MAJOR ANDR6. 



Why could not the meeting take place on land? 
It would be an extremely hazardous thing for Andre to land, 
since, by the laws of war, any officer of an army who goes within 



THE TREASON OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. 



425 




MAP OF THE SCENE OF ARNOLD'S TREASON. 



the enemy's lines under any pretext whatever, unless he obtains 
permission beforehand, and is protected by a flag of truce, is con- 
sidered a spy, and is always hung. 

What were Andrei ideas aiid expectations in going up the 
river ? 

^lajor Andre, who was a very ardent and enthusiastic young- 
man, was very ready to go into any danger that it might be neces- 
sary to incur in order to accomplish the object. So he set out 



426 THE TREASON OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. 

for the Vulture. He went by land up to Dobbs's Ferry, whicli 
may be seen represented on the map, and then proceeded by a boat 
to the sloop-of-war. Arnold had obscurely promised that a boat 
should come down from him to the Vulture that night, and Andre 
supposed that Arnold himself would come in her, and thus that 
the interview would take place on board the Vulture. 

What loas really the ;plan that Aimold had formed? 

But this was not Arnold's plan. Instead of hazarding his own 
life by going on board the Vulture, he preferred that Andre should 
incur the danger by coming to meet him on the land. 

Describe the situation of Smith's house. 

Arnold left West Point in the evening, and went down the river 
to the house of a certain Joshua Smith, who was an accomplice 
of his, or else his dtvpe, it is not certainly known which. The en- 
graving below represents a view of Smith's house, and the situation 




SMITH S HOl]^E 



of it, on the banks of the river, will be seen by reference to the 
map. It is on the west side of the river, a little below a place 
called Stony Point, where there is a ferry across to Verplanck's 
Point. Smith's house, too, you will see, is not a great way above 
the place where the Vulture was lying. It would seem, from the 



THE TREASON OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. 427 

scale laid down in the corner of the map, that it might be about 
five miles. 

What took place at SmitKs house f Where was Smith to 
hiding Andre f 

According to the plan which he had formed for bringing Andre 
to the shore, Arnold, at the appointed time, came down to Smith's 
house, and made an agreement with Smith to go down in the night 
to the Vulture, and " bring a gentleman, whom he wished to see, 
ashore from the sloop." The place where he was to bring him 
was agreed upon. It was at the bank of the river, nearly oppo- 
site to w^iere the Vulture lay, but yet a mile or two distant. The 
place is marked on the map. There was a little inlet from the 
river there, where the boat could put in and be concealed. In- 
deed, the place was in all respects as retired and solitary a spot 
as could be desired. Arnold was himself to go down there by 
land in the night, at the same time that Smith went in his boat 
on the water. 

Give an account of Smith's progress down the river. 

The plan succeeded perfectly w^ell. Smith had some trouble 
to find oarsmen for his boat that he could rely upon, who were 
willing to go down the river with him in the night on so mysteri- 
ous and possibly dangerous an expedition ; but at last he succeed- 
ed, and as soon as night came on and the moon w^ent down, he set 
out. It was a starlight night, and very still. Smith muffled the 
oars, and glided as noiselessly as possible out of the bay where his 
boat had been lying, and then turned down the river. 

What did Aymold do f 

Arnold went down along the bank of the river by land. He 
rode on horseback, and took a spare horse with him. 

Give an account of what took place when the boat reached the 
Yidture. 

The sentinels on board the Vulture had been instructed that, if 
they saw a boat coming and making a certain signal — one which 



428 THE TEEASON OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. 

Arnold had previously indicated — they were to allow her to come 
alongside. Smith made the signal, and the boat was accordingly 
permitted to come directly up to the vessel. Smith ascended the 
side, and went on board. The oarsmen remained in the boat. 
After having been gone a few minutes. Smith came back, bringing 
Andre with him. 

How was Andre dressed^ and why loas it that his dress ivas a 
matter of importance f 

Andre wore the regular scarlet uniform of the British officers, 
but the uniform was all covered and concealed by a long blue sur- 
tout buttoned up to the chin. His wearing this uniform is an im- 
portant circumstance to be noted ; for when a person belonging to 
the army on one side, in a war, is found within the lines on the 
other side, the question of his being disguised or not is a very im- 
portant one in deciding whether he is to be hung as a spy. If 
he wears his proper uniform openly, that would seem to denote 
that he was not a spy, but that he came on some fair and honest 
business. 

How was it icith Andre f 

Andre, in point of fact, was not disguised, nor did he, on the 
other hand, wear his proper uniform openly. He wore it, it is 
true, but he had covered it up with the long blue surtout. 

What followed after Andre and Smith had got into the boat? 

He followed Smith into the boat, and the men pushed oiF, and 
turned the head of the boat toward the shore. They rowed for 
about half an hour in the starlight, and then began gradually to 
approach the land. A man at the bows watched the dark and 
shadowy mass of trees and foliage that fringed the bank, as they 
glided silently along, until he found the entrance to the little cove, 
and then the boat turned in. 

Describe the first interview between Arnold and AndrL 

Smith and Andr6 landed. Arnold was watching near, conceal- 
ed in a thicket. Smith led Andre in, and said, " Here is Mr. 



THE TREASON OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. 429 

Anderson, sir." Anderson was the feigned name tliat Andre had 
used in all the correspondence which he had with Arnold. He 
adopted a false name for the purpose of greater secresy. 

W/iat did Smith do after he had brought Aiidre and Arnold 
together f 

As soon as Smith had brought Andre and Arnold together, he 
went back to the boat, and left them to themselves. It was now 
considerably past midnight. Smith waited an hour or more, and 
then he crept softly back to the thicket, and told Arnold that it 
was time to take Mr. Anderson back to the sloop. " It will soon 
be morning," said he, " and then we can not go back at all. There 
is a guard watch on the bank of the river all day, and if they see 
us going to the Vulture in a boat, they will shoot us." 

Why did not Arnold accede to SmitKs proposal? 

Arnold said that they had not nearly finished making their ar- 
rangements, and for a moment they were perplexed to know what 
to do. At length Arnold proposed that Andre should put off go- 
ing back to the sloop-of-war till the next night. 

What did they finally determine to do? 

"Go up the river with me," said he, "to Mr. Smith's house, 
and stay there to-day. That will give us plenty of time to ar- 
range our plans completely. Then to-night, as soon as it is dark, 
I will send you back to the vessel." Andre at last consented to 
this, though he knew that he exposed himself to great danger by 
so doing. Look at the map again now, and see the place where 
Andre landed, and follow up the bank of the river with your eye 
to Smith's house. Compare the distance with the scale in the 
corner, and you will see that it was about four miles that they 
had to go. 

How did they go up the river, and ivhat occurred on the way f 

Arnold had his two horses with him, and he and Anderson 
mounted them and rode up the river to Smith's house. At one 
time they passed a sentinel. Arnold gave the pass-word, and the 



430 THE TREASON OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. 

sentinel allowed them to go by. "Now," said xlndre to himself, 
" I am fairly within the American lines. If I am detected, I 
shall be hanged as a spy. But it is too late to go back." 

What sounds did they hear when they reached Smith's house ? 

Very soon after they reached the house, they heard the firing 
of heavy cannon down the river near where the Yulture was lying. 
They were quite alarmed, and wondered what was the matter. It 
proved, in the end, that a company of men who lived on the east- 
ern bank of the river had brought a cannon to Teller's Point — 
which you will see by the map is directly opposite where the Vul- 
ture was lying — and had begun to fire upon her, to drive her away. 

What did the Vulture do to escajM the daiiger f 

The Vulture, not liking these shots, and not knowing what had 
become of Andre to prevent his returning at the appointed time, 
weighed anchor, and dropped down the river to a safer place. You 
will see by the map that the Vulture was in sight from Smith's 
house where she lay at first in the narrows ; but now, when she 
had gone down below, she was concealed from view. 

Describe the situation that Andre was left in at Smith's house. 

Arnold and Andre continued their consultation at Smith's house 
during the forenoon, and at noon they had arranged all their plans. 
Then Arnold went away up the river to West Point, to complete 
the preparations there for surrendering the post, and left Andre in 
Smith's care, to be taken back down the river that night. But, 
when night came. Smith said they could not go down in a boat ; 
it was too far. Andre urged him very earnestly to go, but he re- 
fused. 

What jplan did Andre finally adojpt for getting hccck to the 
Yulture f 

He said that he would take him across the river by the King's 
Ferry, and go down with him by land, on the eastern side, till 
they got opposite to the Vulture, and that then he could easily get 
on board. This plan was carried into effect. You will see the 



THE TEEASON OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. 431 

ferrj where they crossed on the map. It leads from Stony Point 
to Verplanck's Point, a short distance above Smith's house. 

How was he sto2)ped on the way ? 

Andre met with a great variety of adventures on his way, but 
he succeeded in getting down the river almost to Tarrytown, and 
there he was stopped by some men who were watching the road. 
He thought that they were on the British side, for he was now 
near the British lines, so he very inadvertently told them at once 
that he was a British officer, and that they must let him pass. 
They immediately seized him and searched him. They found 
papers in his boot, that Arnold had given him, which exposed the 
whole plot. They immediately sent him a prisoner to the Amer- 
ican camp. 

Relate the circumstances of Arnold's learning that the plot was 
discovered, and of his flight. 

Arnold heard that his plot was discovered while he was at 
breakfast with two other generals that had unexpectedly come 
that morning. He learned the news in a letter that was sent him. 
He ran into his wife's room, and with a face of consternation and 
despair told her that he must fly for his life, and perhaps she 
would never see him again. His wife was so terrified that she 
fainted. He could not, however, stop to aid her, but kissed his 
little child, who was then sleeping in the room, and rushed out of 
the house. He hurried down to a small landing that Robinson 
had near his house, and, jumping into a boat there, he rowed off 
as fast as he could down the river, and finally succeeded in reach- 
ing the Vulture in safety. 

What was Arnold'' s subsequent history? 

The British government rewarded him very generously for his 
intended treason, though it did not succeed. They voted him 
about fifty thousand dollars in money, and made him an officer in 
their army ; and he afterward fought against the Americans with 
great fury until peace was made. But the British, though they 



432 THE SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS. 

paid him for his treason, despised him for being guilty of it. The 
officers of the army shunned him, and were unwilling to serve with 
him, or to keep company with him in any way. At length he died, 
and his memory is held in universal execration by all mankind. 

What became of Andre f 

Poor Andre was hung as a spy. Every body sympathized 
with him, and wished to save him, but, in spite of every eifort, 
he fell a sacrifice to the merciless rules of war. 



CHAPTEE XIV. 

THE SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS. 

For how onany years did the war co7itiniie f 

The war of the American Revolution continued more than seven 
years. It began in the spring of 1775, and it ended in the fall 
of 1782. 

What was the great event which finally brought the war to a 
close f 

The event which produced the most decided effect in finally 
leading the English government to give up the contest, and to ac- 
knowledge the independence of the American States, was the cap- 
ture of a large British army in 1781 by the combined forces of 
the Americans and their allies, the French. 

Who luas the English general, and where was he cajHured f 

The English general who commanded the army was Lord Corn- 
wallis. The Americans and the French gradually surrounded 
Cornwallis, and shut him up closely in a place called Yorktown, 
in Virginia, and, after a time, compelled him to surrender. The 
event is consequently called in history the surrender of Cornwal- 
lis. The circumstances of the case were very remarkable. 

IIoio and when did Cornwallis commence his camjpaign f 

Lord Cornwallis had been engaged in conducting a campaign 



THE SUERENDER OF CORNWALLIS. 



433 




LORD CORNWALLIS. 



in North Carolina, and during the summer he had been quite suc- 
cessful. Near the beginning of September he marched northward, 
and entered Virginia, conquering and devastating the country as 
he came. 

W/iai were the situations of Washiiigton and Clinton at tJm 
time^ and what orders did Clinton send to Cornwallis f 

Washington was at this time on the Hudson Eiver, forming 
plans for attacking Sir Henry Clinton in New York. Clinton was 
closely shut up in the city, and was apprehensive of an attaciv 
from Washington. He was the general-in-chief of the Britisli 
armies in America. Cornwallis was under his command. Ac- 
cordingly, when he heard that Cornwallis had come into Virginia, 
he wrote to him immediately to put a large number of his troop? 
on board some vessels, and send them round to New York by sea, 
for a re-enforcement to New York, in order to defend that city 
from Washington. 

Ee 



434 THE SUERENDER OF CORNWALLIS. 

Why did not Cornwallis proceed to New York in obedience 
to this order f 

Cornwallis had got his men on board the ships, and they were 
about ready to sail, when suddenly another letter came, counter- 
manding the order. Clinton informed Cornwallis that he had re- 
ceived a large re-enforcement from England and Germany — for 
the English government had adopted the plan of employing sol- 
diers from Germany to fight for them in this war — and that it 
was now not necessary to send the re-enforcement. 
What further orders did Clinton give? 

Clinton further said that he wished Cornwallis to select some 
strong position in Virginia, and fortify himself in it as securely as 
possible, so that it might form a central point from which to make 
incursions into the surrounding country in the course of the ensu- 
ing fall and winter. So Cornwallis landed his men again, and 
prepared to carry these orders into effect. 

Describe the situation of Yorktown, and of Cornwalliis en- 
campment there. 

After examining several places, he finally made choice of the 
village of Yorktown for his camp. This was a village on the 
south side of the York River, which is one of the rivers that flow 
from the westward into the southern part of Chesapeake Bay. 
The land is generally level in all this part of Virginia, and but 
little raised above the surface of the rivers. The situation of 
Yorktown was, however, somewhat higher, and it was so defend- 
ed by the river on one side, and by small streams and ravines on 




REMAINS OF THE INTBENCHMENTS AT YORKTOWN. 



THE SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS. 435 

the other sides, that it was very easily fortified. Comwallis threw 
up intrenchments, consisting of banks of earth, along all the un- 
guarded points around the village, and planted cannon behind 
them, so as to command every approach. The remains of some 
of these intrenchments are seen very distinctly on the ground to 
the present day. 

What forces were in the neighborhood to oppose hiinf 
In this camp Cornwallis established himself with his army, 
which consisted of about seven thousand men, and began to form 
plans for making incursions into the surrounding country. He 
was obliged to be somewhat wary in his movements, for General 
Greene, an American commander, had an army in the vicinity, 
which, though not as large as that of Cornwallis, was still some- 
what formidable. There was also a considerable French force 
near, under the command of General La Fayette. 

What re-enforcements did he expect f 

Cornwallis, moreover, hoped very soon to receive such an acces- 
sion to his force that he should be able to accomplish any thing 
he might desire. There was an English fleet in the West Indies 
which was now expected in the Chesapeake. As soon as that 
fleet should arrive, he would become at once, he thought, complete 
master of the country. So he remained quiet in Yorktown, keep- 
ing a good look-out aU the time down the river and bay for the 
arrival of the ships. 

What fleet was it that actually came f 

At length, toward the latter end of August, a fleet was seen 
coming up the bay, but, to Cornwallis's infinite disappointment 
and chagrin, the ships proved to be French instead of English. 
It was a squadron commanded by Count de Grasse, and it came 
from the West Indies. 

What plans did La Fayette and the Count noio form f 

General La Fayette sent a man out in a boat from Cape Henry 
to this fleet, when it first appeared, to inform the admiral of the 



436 THE SURKENDER OF COENWALLIS. 

situation of affairs. " We have got Cornwallis hemmed in by 
land," said he, " and if you can send up some ships to the mouth 
of the York Eiver, and so shut him up by sea, we can take his 
whole army prisoners." This Count de Grasse resolved to do. 
He sent up four ships of the line and several' frigates. 

What course did Washington now determine to pursue f 

In the mean time, when Washington, at his camp on the Hud- 
son, found that Clinton had received a large re-enforcement in 
New York, so that he could not hope to reconquer that city, he 
determined to leave that region and march south into Virginia, and 
assist, if possible, in capturing Cornwallis. He accordingly moved 
in detachments out of his camp, and commenced his march. 

What did Clinton think of this movement f 

Clinton might have come out of New York and followed him ; 
and perhaps he might have entirely prevented his proceeding, but 
he did not imagine that Washington could be really intending to 
go to Virginia. He supposed that his sending off so many men 
from his camp was only a stratagem to conceal some design that 
he might be forming against New York ; so he remained in the 
city, waiting for the expected attack. 

Hoijb long did it take WasklngtovbS army to m^arch to Virginia f 

From the River Hudson to Virginia is a long distance, and it 
required some time to accomplish the march. An army, loaded 
as the soldiers are with their arms and knapsacks, and with so 
much baggage in their train, moves slowly. It was a fortnight 
before Washington arrived. He immediately went on board the 
flag-ship of Count de Grasse, in the bay, and the two command- 
ers settled together their plan of operations. 

What was now Cornwalliis situation^ and what were his 
hopes f 

The armies of the Americans and the French united now 
amounted to twelve thousand men, while that of Cornwallis con- 
sisted of only seven thousand. Cornwallis, of course, could not 



THE SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS. 437 

meet his enemies in the field. His only hope was that he might 
be able to defend himself in Yorktown, and hold out there until 
General Clinton could send him relief from New York. There 
was, however, not much hope of this, for the French fleet, which 
had been increased by a new arrival since de Grasse came, was 
now very strong, and they had full possession of the harbor and 
the bay. Had it not been for this fleet, Cornwallis might, per- 
haps, have made his escape by water; but, with their armies on 
land and their fleet on the sea, the Americans and the French had 
shut him in on all sides, and they watched him continually with 
the closest vigilance. 

How did the Araericans obtain information of what jpassed in 
the enemy's camp f 

The Americans all this time knew every thing that passed in 
the British camp. They obtained their information through a spy 
who was employed by General La Fayette to go into Yorktown. 
He was an American soldier from New Jersey named Morgan. 
He went into Yorktown pretending to be a deserter, and there en- 
listed in Comwallis's army. From time to time he communicated 
to La Fayette and to the Americans all that it was necessary for 
them to know in respect to the condition of the British army, and 
to what took place in their camp. If he had been detected he 
would have been hung.* 

Give an accouyit of the progress of the siege. 

As soon as Washington arrived, the American and French ar- 
mies regularly invested the place, a^nd commenced the operations 
of the siege. In the night, strong parties would be formed to 
draw as near as possible to the British lines, and throw up in- 
trenchments there, and place heavy guns behind them, with which 

* When the campaign was ended and Cornwallis had surrendered, the Araericans 
offered this man a reward for his services, but he would not receive it. They then 
proposed to make him an officer, but he declined the honor. " He knew he was a 
good soldier," he said, " but it was not by any means certain that he should make a 
good officer." 



438 THE SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS. 

to cannonade the works the next day. Sometimes these batteries 
were established in one quarter and sometimes in another; and 
all day, and sometimes all night long, bombs and red-hot balls 
were seen marking their fiery track through the air, and descend- 
ing with dreadful effect upon the ill-fated town. As the siege 
proceeded, these works advanced nearer and nearer, until, at 
length, Cornwallis saw that he must either form some desperate 
plan for making his escape from the place, or else he must sur- 
render. 

What plan did Cornwallis devise for escape f 

He decided to attempt to escape. His plan was to leave all 
his guns, and ammunition, and baggage, as well as all the sick 
and wounded men, in the camp ; and then, with the active and 
able-bodied troops, to make his way in boats, in the night, across 
the river to the north side. He would surprise some small por- 
tions of the American army that were stationed there, and seize 
their horses. By means of these, and such other horses as he 
could capture on the road, he hoped to force his way through the 
country to New York. This was, it is true, a very desperate un- 
dertaking ; but then, even if only half his army should succeed in 
getting there, while the other half were killed or taken prisoners 
on the way, that would be better than to remain in Yorktown and 
lose all. 

Hoio was this plan defeated? 

Unfortunately for Cornwallis, this scheme was entirely defeated 
at the very commencement of the attempt to put it in execution. 
The night fixed for the embarkation was the 16th of October. 
The boats were got ready, and all the arrangements were made, 
every thing having been done so secretly that the Americans did 
not suspect the design. At ten o'clock one detachment of the 
troops was sent across the river. But then there suddenly came 
on a very violent tempest of wind and rain, which made it impos- 
sible to proceed with the undertaking. Cornwallis succeeded in 



THE SUREENDER OF CORNWALLIS. 439 

the course of the night in bringing back the few that had been 
sent over, but that was all he could do. 

What was now the condition in which Cornwallis wasplaced, 
and what did he at length determine to do f 

All hope of escape was now necessarily abandoned, and Corn- 
wallis saw there was no alternative left but to surrender. He 
spent the following day in an agony of suspense and anxiety. 
His works were ruined. The enemy was getting every hour 
nearer and nearer. Shot and shells were descending upon the 
wretched town in an incessant storm, and there was nowhere any 
shelter from them or place of refuge. Accordingly, Cornwallis 
sent out an officer with a flag of truce to ask the Americans to 
cease firing, and promising to surrender. Orders were according- 
ly given that the firing should cease, and a conference was held to 
agree upon the terms of capitulation. The terms were settled 
that day, and on the following day the British army were to march 
out of Yorktown, and lay down their arms. 

Give an account of the arrangements made for the surrender. 

The surrender of an army of seven thousand men is a very im- 
posing ceremony. On the morning of the appointed day, the 
American and French armies were drawn iip on the sides of a road 
leading from Yorktown. The French were on one side and the 
Americans on the other. The lines extended for more than a 
mile. The British troops were to march out between them. An 
immense concourse of people assembled from all the surrounding- 
country to witness the scene. 

^Vhat VMS the cause of the great exultation of the Americans 
at this result f 

Lord Cornwallis had made himself the dread of the whole south- 
ern country by the devastations he had made, and he had come 
into Virginia with the design of continuing there his career of ter- 
ror and destruction. The people, of course, exulted with double 
joy in the dreadful retribution that had now overtaken him. 



440 



THE SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS. 



Describe the ceremony hy which the act of surrender icas final- 
ly performed. 

The assembled multitude, however, did not have an opportunity 
to see their great enemy himself. He was sick when the morn- 
ing came, or pretended to be sick, and so did not appear. Indeed, 
he was so overwhelmed with vexation and despair that he was 
perhaps really unable to leave his room ; so he sent one of his 
generals in his stead, to carry his sword, and deliver it up to Gen- 
eral Washington, this being an essential part of the ceremony ob- 
served on all such occasions. The engraving below represents the 




THE SURBENDER OF CORNWALLIS. 



surrender. In the foreground is seen the officer sent by Cornwal- 
lis in the act of giving up the sword. In the background are the 



THE SUERENDER OF CORNWALLIS. 441 

British troops, disarmed, and standing between the French and 
American lines. In the distance we see the French ships lying 
at anchor in the river. 

WAat had been the general condition of the country during 
the progress of the war f 

The surrender of this army virtually put an end to the war. 
During the seven years that had elapsed since hostiHties com- 
menced at Lexington and Bunker Hill, the country had been in- 
creasing in wealth and population, notwithstanding all the waste 
and destruction the war had occasioned, and was now stronger 
than ever before. This was the second large British army that 
had been captured, and comparatively few troops now remained 
in the country. Even those few were closely shut up in places 
distant from each other, so that they were isolated and helpless. 

How was it that the government was finally induced to give 
lip the war f 

In view of these facts, it w^as evident that the struggle was be- 
coming more and more hopeless every day, and thus the people of 
England began to be tired of the war, and to wish to have it aban- 
doned. The government was thus at last compelled to submit. 
They were exceedingly reluctant to come to this conclusion, but 
they found that come to it they must, and accordingly a treaty of 
peace was signed, in which the independence and freedom of the 
United States of America was fully acknowledged by the govern- 
ment of Great Britain. 

When and where vms the treaty of peace made, and what was 
the result of it f 

This treaty is generally called the treaty of Paris. It was made 
in the fall of 1783. Treaties between nations are very often named 
after the place at which they were formed. This treaty was made 
at Paris. The representatives of the American colonies went there 
and met the representatives of the British government, and to- 
gether they drew up the treaty of peace. A treaty is, in fact, a 



442 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. 

contract between two nations. After the terms of this treaty had 
been discussed and settled upon by the commissioners, it was ex- 
ecuted by them on behalf of their respective governments. Thus 
peace and the independence of the United States were at last es- 
tablished. 



CHAPTER XV. 

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. 

What question at once arose amo7ig the American peojple when 
jpeace had been made f 

As soon as peace between England and America was establish- 
ed by the treaty of 1783, and the independence of the nation was 
acknowledged by the mother country, the question at once arose 
what arrangements should be made for the future government of 
the United States. There had been no time to think much on 
this subject during the continuance of the war. A great many 
difficulties had been experienced for want of some well-organized 
general government, but there was no opportunity to attempt to 
provide any remedy for them until peace was declared. The sub- 
ject was then taken up at once in serious earnest. 

What was the nature of the jpowers that Congress had exer- 
cised during the war f 

In order to understand the case fully, we must remember that 
hitherto the Congress, though they exercised a sort of general 
superintendence over the affairs of the war, were, after all, not a 
government. They were only, as it were, a committee. Their 
functions were almost precisely those of a joint committee chosen 
by a number of different powers to transact certain business of 
common interest to all. In respect to measures involving the ac- 
tion of the different states, they had no actual powers whatever. 
They could only recommend. It devolved on the several states 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. 443 

to determine, each for itself, liow far they would comply with 
these recommendations after they were made. The patriotism 
and the public spirit of the country produced, it is true, a great 
deal of unanimity in the states while the war continued, so that 
the evils resulting from the want of a general organization, em- 
powered to act as well as to advise, though serious, were not fatal. 
It was very evident, however, that in a long-continued time of 
peace so inefficient a system as that would not answer at all. 
How many plans of government were proposed f 
The question was what was to be done. Two plans of gov- 
ernment suggested themselves at once in such circumstances. 
What wus the first plan^ and what were the advantages of it? 

1. To consider each one of the several states as entirely sov- 
ereign and independent ; and to organize for each one a separate 
government, so that each should be distinct from all the rest, just 
as the different nations of Europe are distinct from each other. 
There were good reasons for this plan, for the states extended 
over a region widely diversified in climate and soil, as well as in 
the pursuits, and manners, and customs of the inhabitants, and a 
system of government and laws that would be adapted to one por- 
tion of the country would not be suitable to another. For those 
reasons, it seemed desirable that each state should have a govern- 
ment of its own. 

What was the second plan, and what were the advantages of it? 

2. To abolish the distinction of states altogether, and form one 
great and united nation, with one government to rule over all. 
This would be doing substantially what has been done in the 
British empire. In former times, England, Scotland, and Ireland 
were three separate states, each having its own independent gov- 
ernment ; but they have, in modern times, been merged into one, 
and the distinctions exist now chiefly in name. There were good 
reasons for this plan too. One great nation is much more power- 
ful in defending itself from enemies in time of war than a number 



444 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. 

of small ones. It was plain, too, that there were several other de- 
partments of government, besides that of military defense, that 
could be more conveniently managed in one system covering the 
whole country, such as dealing with the tribes of Indians, buy- 
ing and settling the lands in the interior of the country, regulating 
commerce with foreign nations, and organizing and working the 
post-office. 

What were the comparative advantages of the two plans? 

Thus, for general purposes, it seemed best to have one gener- 
al government uniting the whole country; but for the conven- 
ience and satisfaction of the mass of the people in the ordinary ar- 
rangements of daily life, it was best to have separate governments, 
so that each state might manage its affairs in its own way. And 
in the same manner, so far as dealings with foreign nations were 
concerned, it would be better to have a union of the whole coun- 
try under one government, but so far as related to internal reg- 
ulations and laws, affecting the private concerns of the people, it 
would be better to have a separate government for each individ- 
ual state. 

What is the nature of a league or federation f 

In several cases that had previously existed in the history of 
the world, where a number of small states were situated near each 
other, which possessed general interests common to them all, the 
plan of a league or federation had been adopted ;* that is, the 
several small states maintained each a distinct and independent 
government, and then these governments leagued themselves to- 
gether for the common defense, and for other purposes of interest 
to them all; but this plan had never succeeded very well, and 
such leagues have never proved strong or permanent. 

What were proved to he the difficulties in the operation of such 
a government f 

* The word federation means a league. Federal means that which pertains to a 
league. A confederation is a leaguing together. 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. 445 

In the operation of the system, it was found that the separate 
governments would send their delegates to the general assembly, 
and votes would be passed there ; but then, if any particular state 
did not approve of a vote, they would not comply with it, and 
there was no way of compelling them to comply but by sending 
an armed force, and making war upon them. This made a great 
deal of trouble. Indeed, such federations were continually getting 
involved in difficulties of all kinds, arising from the governments 
of the individual states neglecting or refusing to carry out the 
measures which the confederation had agreed upon. 

W/iat was the real source of the difficulty in these cases f 

The difficulty was that the confederation had no power to carry 
its measures into execution itself, but was obliged to depend upon 
the action of the several states in executing them. This made 
the confederation weak ; and, in cases where the states seriously 
disagreed, it became utterly powerless. 

What was the nature of the scheme that the Americans de- 
vised f 

The Americans devised a scheme to meet these difficulties 
which was entirely new. Nothing like it had ever been before 
tried in the history of the world. The plan was to create two in- 
dependent systems of government — a system of general govern- 
ment for all business of general and common interest, and a sys- 
tem of state governments for business of local interest. Thus they 
divided the business ; and for one branch of it they made the 
whole country one nation, while for another branch of it they di- 
vided the country into a large number of distinct and independent 
nations. 

In resjpect to what portions of the public business is the coun- 
try one f 

In respect to peace, and war, and foreign commerce, and dealing 
with the Indians, and the post-office, the country is one country : 
it has one Legislature, one population, and one set of executive 



446 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. 

officers, who have power to go every where, and execute the laws 
themselves which relate to the departments of business that be- 
long to them, without calling upon the state governments at all. 

In respect to what jportions of the jpuhlic business is the coun- 
try divided f 

On the other hand, so far as the laws which govern the trans- 
action of business, the punishment of ordinary crimes, the charter- 
ing of companies, the inheritance of property, and all other such 
subjects, are concerned, the country is not one. In respect to 
these things there is no union at all. There is not even a feder- 
ation. The states are independent in these, and the government 
of each is supreme within its own boundaries. 

Does either government exercise any dominion over the other f 

Young persons sometimes imagine that the general government 
is, in some sense, a government above the state governments, and 
that it exercises a sort of superintendence over them ; but this is 
not so in any sense whatever. The general government extends 
its jurisdiction over a wider field than the state governments, it 
is true, but it does not rise to any higher elevation in respect to 
sovereignty and power. It is supreme in respect to the business 
intrusted to it, and so are the state governments supreme in re- 
spect to the business intrusted to them. 

What example is there of the exercise of the power of the state 
government in Virginia f 

The government of Virginia, for example, has founded a univer- 
sity in the heart of the state for the education of young men. 
That is a business that belongs to the state. Now neither the 
President of the United States, nor the Congress, nor both com- 
bined, can touch that institution at all, no matter how well or how 
badly the government of Virginia may manage it. The educa- 
tion of the people ofVirginia is a subject that belongs to the state. 
In respect to that business the state is supreme, and the general 
government of the United States has no more power to touch it 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FEDEEAL CONSTITUTION. 447 

than has the government of France, or England, or that of any 
other country. 

WAat example is there of the exercise of the poicer of the gen- 
eral government in Yirginia ? 

On the other hand, at Gosport, near Norfolk, in Yirginia, is a 
navy-yard, established and maintained by the government of the 
United States. Every thing that pertains to the navy belongs to 
the departments of national defense and foreign commerce, and 
those things are the business of the general government. The 
general government accordingly bought the land for that navy- 
yard, and built the docks and piers, and hired the workmen, and, 
although the ground is within the limits of the State of Virginia, 
neither the governor of Virginia, nor the Legislature, nor both to- 
gether, can touch the navy-yard at all, no matter how well or how 
badly the general government may manage it. 

How many systems of government^ then^ have the jpeoj)le of the 
United States established? 

In other words, the people of the United States, having a va- 
riety of public business to perform, have divided the business into 
two great branches, and have adopted one system of government 
for one, and another system for the other. In respect to certain 
great subjects of general interest, they have formed themselves 
into one nation, and they have constituted one general government 
to attend to that business. In respect to another great branch of 
business, they deem it more convenient to have it transacted in 
a different way. In respect to this, they are not one nation in any 
sense, but are divided into a great many independent states, each 
of which has supreme and sovereign control within its jurisdic- 
tion. 

What are some of the 2>^i^cij><^d public establishments which 
belong to the general government f 

The general government, besides the public edifices at Washing- 
ton, possess navy-yards in different parts of the country for build- 



448 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. 

ing, equipping, and repairing ships of war, and armories for the 
manufacture of arms, and foundries for casting cannon, and a great 
number of strong fortifications for defending the frontiers of the 
country. 

What are some of the kinds 0/ public estahlishmeiits that he- 
long to the state governments ? 

The state governments found asylums for the poor and infirm, 
and build court-houses for the administration of justice between 
man and man, and establish seminaries of learning of various kinds, 
and other such institutions as pertain to the internal welfare of 
the community. 

What differences of opinion prevailed at the time that the Con^ 
stitution was under discussion ? 

There was a great deal of discussion and debate concerning the 
plan of the government, and it was a long time before the system 
finally adopted was matured, and was fully comprehended by the 
country at large. In many quarters, indeed, there was great op- 
position to it. Some thought that the general government would 
be weak and inefficient, and they wished to have more power con- 
fided to it, and less reserved for the states. Others thought that 
the general government would prove to be too strong, and that the 
rights and powers of the states would be overwhelmed by it. The 
new Constitution was, however, finally adopted, though it was not 
until five years after the war was ended, and the independence of 
the country acknowledged, that this grand result was attained, and 
the new government established. 

Give an account of the inauguration of the first president 

General Washington was chosen the first president by a unan- 
imous vote. At the close of the war he took leave of the army, 
resigned his commission, and retired to his own estate in Virginia, 
happy in having been the means in bringing the long and weary 
war to a successful end. His residence was at Mount Vernon, a 
beautiful place on the banks of the Potomac, not far below the 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. 



449 



Citj of Washington, the seat of government at the present time. 
New York, however, was the temporary seat of government then, 
the permanent place for the capital not having been yet chosen. 
Washington accordingly left his home at Mount Vernon to pro- 




MOUNT VERNON. 



ceed to New York when the time for his inauguration arrived ; 
and as he traveled through the region in which he had been ex- 
posed to so many dangers, and had passed so many long and 
weary years of toil and suffering during the war, the people throng- 
ed from all quarters to greet him as he passed, and to hail him 
as the Father of his Country. 



450 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. 

What has been the progress of the country since that time? 

Since that time the country has advanced in population, wealth, 
and power with a rapidity which is entirely unparalleled in the 
history of the human race. The extent of its territory has been 
greatly enlarged, and many new states have been successively 
farmed and added to the confederation, so that the new republic 
is rapidly rising to a very exalted rank among the nations of the 
earth, and is destined, perhaps, at no distant day, to surpass all 
the political organizations that have preceded her in population 
and power, and to exert a vast influence upon the future destinies 
of the great human family. 



THE END. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



018 511 731 5 




^M ^^ «, .'4 v;t. ;;| ^4 ^M ,-^ ^^t % «; # j 






WM: 



^5^|ip.t,iC«mMjii::^ 






..^■|i . /N->i:M -M^M^ m .;« ■*: ■■•At ■■H . ■#■ " :# '^iv ^^ 
I .^t :.:%L .*■ ,;;^ ,,w .^f f ^^f :^- «• ■* ■*• ".«■ ■# ■ *■ 
■'^MM -n M '* .-t M % % • f ■^«^^ '#■ ■« '^i- "^. 

;.#; ;a|; :-^. r* ■# m: -.fr '« ■;■« '^^^^ •;« •« ^:* ^*i. '#. ^^f . 



